Who is a nihilist and what is nihilism

Nihilism is a type of worldview in which a person denies social norms, orders and values. We can say that this is a philosophy and way of life of a person. Perhaps now you thought that we would talk about antisocial individuals, vandals, hooligans, drunkards. No. Although all of this is a manifestation of nihilism, there are other, more attractive examples. And the concept itself is much more complex and broader. Let's take a closer look at what nihilism is and who a nihilist is in simple words.

Definition of the concept

Nihilism - what is it and what is the meaning of the word? It is derived from the Latin nihil, which translates as “nothing.” Nihilism is the denial and destruction of existing norms, systems, and order in society. The phenomenon has been studied and continues to be studied in philosophy, history, sociology, and psychology. And in different sciences this concept is given different definitions:

1. Nihilism in history is the denial of all norms, principles and laws created by humanity, complete skepticism.
2. Nihilism in literature is a manifestation of nonconformism, the desire to go beyond the system, the usual way of life.
3. Nihilism in philosophy is the denial of generally accepted norms, values, ideals, culture, etc.
4. Nihilism in psychology is a defense mechanism of the psyche, in which a person seeks to destroy the world so that it does not destroy it.

History of origin

Nihilism was first discussed in the Middle Ages. This was the name of the doctrine that rejected the human nature of Christ. The concept later became popular in Western philosophy. At first it was also associated with religion, and then nihilism began to be understood as a philosophy of life, according to which life itself has no meaning. The problem was studied by F.G. Jacobi, S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche, O. Spengler, M. Heidegger.

In psychology, nihilism began to be studied after it separated from philosophy into an independent science (1876). E. Fromm and W. Reich made a special contribution to the study of the problem. Fromm believed that nihilism is a defense mechanism of the psyche. Faced with problems of adaptation and self-realization, a person seeks to destroy the world so that it does not destroy him. Reich viewed nihilism as a character neurosis and a defense mechanism.

The spread of nihilism in Russia is more connected with literature. It was there that this phenomenon was described in as much detail as possible. This concept was first used by N.I. Nadezhdin in the article “The Host of Nihilists” (1829). In the second half of the 19th century in Russia, those who denied religion and moral standards and wanted to destroy the existing social system were called nihilists. As a rule, it was about revolutionaries. In Western literature, the term “nihilism” was even used to describe the Russian revolutionary movement.

Note! Nihilists strive to destroy previous foundations, but do not offer anything in return. A nihilist is one who denies and criticizes, but offers nothing.

Nihilism as a phenomenon of Russian life and Russian concept according to dictionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries.

UDC 413.211

M. N. Marchenko (Bryansk, Russia)

Nihilism as a phenomenon of Russian life and Russian concept according to dictionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The article examines the history of the use of the words “nihilism, nihilist” in Russian lexicographic publications, which appeared in the Russian language, primarily as a result of understanding the image of Bazarov from I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”.

The mid-19th century for Russia became a period of severe social upheaval. At this time, “new people” - commoners - entered the arena of social struggle with their demands and new formations, which began to crowd out the nobles and their way of life.

It is the collision of these two sides that I. S. Turgenev traces in his novel “Fathers and Sons,” which was published in 1862. It immediately attracted the attention of the general public and continues to arouse great interest among readers both due to the severity of the questions posed in it and its artistic merits. In this work, Turgenev managed to raise deep political, philosophical and aesthetic problems, capture real life conflicts, and reveal the essence of the ideological struggle between the main social forces in Russia in the late 50s and early 60s of the 19th century.

The image of the main character of the novel, Evgeny Vasilyevich Bazarov, shocked the imagination of the entire reading public. For the first time in Russian literature, a democrat commoner was depicted - a man of enormous willpower and strong convictions. Arkady Kirsanov, who considered himself his student, calls Bazarov a nihilist.

And Bazarov does not deny this. For people of that time and the class where Evgeny Bazarov ended up, this word was akin to a curse and sounded somehow barbaric and wild to them.

The very word nihilism

has existed for a long time.
“In the Middle Ages there was a heretical doctrine of nihilism
, anathematized by Pope Alexander III in 1179.
The doctrine of nihilism
... rejected the human nature of Christ.

In Western philosophical thought, the term nihilism

introduced by the German writer and philosopher F. G. Jacobi. This concept was used by many philosophers ... and most often they understood this term as an awareness of the illusory and inconsistency of the Christian idea of ​​​​a supra-mundane God and the idea of ​​progress, which they considered a version of religious faith.” [1;97]

In Russian literature the word nihilism

first used by N.I. Nadezhdin in the article “The Host of Nihilists”, published in the “Bulletin of Europe” in the meaning of
deniers and skeptics
.
In 1858, a book by Kazan professor V. Bervi was published: “A Psychological Comparative View of the Beginning and End of Life.” It also uses the word nihilism
as a synonym for skepticism.
The critic and publicist N.A. Dobrolyubov, ridiculing Bervy’s book, picked up this word. But it did not become popular until I. S. Turgenev called a nihilist
.
His hero immediately turned into a generalized image of a Russian nihilist
, and the author was credited as the inventor of the concept itself.
The enormous impression made by this novel made the term nihilist popular .
However, none of the people of the 60s officially accepted it. Pisarev, who in a number of articles recognized in Bazarov the embodiment of the ideals and views of the new generation, called himself a “thinking realist.” [1;97]

Thus, in the second half of the 19th century, the nihilists

in the Russian Empire they began to call young people who wanted to change the existing state and social system in the country, denied religion, preached materialism and atheism, and also did not recognize the prevailing moral norms.
In particular, this was the name given to the populist revolutionaries. The word had a clear negative connotation. Nihilists
were portrayed as shaggy, unkempt, dirty men and women who had lost all femininity.

From all of the above we can conclude that the nihilist

is a denier, a destroyer, and in his denial he stops at nothing.

The author’s definition of this concept is also found in the novel, as Arkady Kirsanov explains to his father and uncle that “ a nihilist

“This is a person who does not bow to any authority, who does not accept a single principle on faith, no matter how respectful this principle may be.”
[2;21] Pavel Petrovich, an ardent opponent of the new trend, expressed the opinion that a nihilist
is a person “who does not respect anything.” [2;21]

History of the lexicographic reflection of the word nihilism

presented in the “Ideological and Evaluative Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 19th – Early 20th Centuries” by A.L. Golovanevsky.
[3;63] According to this dictionary, this concept was first recorded by the “Complete Dictionary of Foreign Words That Are Part of the Russian Language,” published by E.P. Pechatkin in 1861, which gives the following definition: “the teaching of skeptics who do not admit the existence of something no matter what." [3; 63] It is interesting that the novel “Fathers and Sons” itself appeared in Russian in 1862, that is, the “Dictionary of 1861” took into account the history of the use of this concept in the period preceding the appearance of Turgenev’s novel. The “Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language” (BAS) connects the first fixation of the word nihilism
with the dictionary of V.I. Dahl, the first edition of which was published later than that of E.P. Pechatkin’s dictionary.[4; 1283]

Later in I.F. Burdon’s dictionary of different years of publication the definition of nihilism

uses with the meaning given by the 1861 Dictionary. [3;63]

In V.I. Dahl's dictionary nihilism

- this is “an ugly and immoral doctrine that rejects everything that cannot be touched.”
[5;544] The negative assessment of the word is clearly visible here, which also reflects the public attitude towards this movement. In F. Toll's dictionary, the word nihilism
retains a negative connotation, but is interpreted more as a term in the sense of “materialism, thoughtless championing of progress, boastful liberalism, denial of modern reality.” [6;1002]

By the late 1870s the word nihilism

almost disappeared from Russian polemical literature, but began to be used in Western European literature as a designation for the Russian revolutionary movement. It was also accepted by some Russian emigrants who wrote in foreign languages ​​about the Russian revolutionary movement. So in 1884, Sofia Kovalevskaya’s story “The Nihilist” was published.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, this concept was interpreted as “any denial of the historical foundations of modern life”[7; 564] or “the direction of Russian thought of the late 50-60s, denying religion, criticizing the patriarchal conditions of family life and the subordinate position of women.” [8;189] It is noteworthy that on the basis of this word new terms arise, reflected in the third edition of V.I. Dahl’s dictionary edited by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, for example, “ theoretical, scientific nihilism

– denial of everything, non-recognition of authorities and principles” and “
practical nihilism
- destruction of the existing order, the desire for a revolution” [9;1412]. We see that over time the concept itself develops, the specifics of its interpretation change, which becomes more scientific and terminological.

A.N. Chudinova, in the 1910 edition of the “Dictionary of Foreign Words Included in the Russian Language,” says that nihilism

- is “a polemical term to designate the extremes and ugliness of the Russian revolutionary movement.”
[3, 63] Thus, we see that the term nihilism
at the beginning of the twentieth century is mainly used to refer to historical events that took place in the 60s of the XIX century. This is confirmed by one of the definitions given in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language”: “a trend among Russian commoners of the sixties, who had a sharply negative attitude towards bourgeois-noble customs and traditions, towards serfdom ideology.” [4, 1284]

In the dictionary of A.L. Golovanevsky it is noted that the definition of nihilist

was first recorded in the first edition (1894) of A.N. Chudinov’s “Dictionary of Foreign Words included in the Russian Language” [3;63], and BAS dates the first fixation of the lexeme
nihilist
to 1898 in the “Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words” by A. D. Mikhelson. [4;1283]

As we see, the phenomenon of nihilism

, apparently, was more widespread than the idea of ​​​​specific individuals professing this doctrine.

Currently, on the semantic basis of the concept of nihilism

the more widely used term is
“legal nihilism
”, that is, disrespect for the law. “It reflects a widespread phenomenon in the legal life of Russian society. Its structure-forming component is an idea that denies social attitudes and carries a significant ideological load, determined not only by trends in social development and corresponding values, but also by a number of psychogenic factors.”[10;108]

Literature:

1. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes. T.21. — St. Petersburg: Semenovskaya Typolitography (I.A. Efron),

   1890-1907. — 500 s.

2. Turgenev I.S. Fathers and Sons. (Novel for high school age)/ I.S. Turgenev. – Kaliningrad: K-e book publishing house, 1984. – 221 p.
3. Golovanevsky A.L. Ideological and evaluative dictionary of the Russian language of the 19th – early 20th centuries. / A.L. Golovanevsky. – Bryansk: Bryansk Publishing House. state ped. Univ., 1995.-169 p.
4. (Big Academic Dictionary) - Dictionary of modern Russian literary language in 17 volumes. T.7/ Ed. V.I. Chernysheva - M.;L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1948-1965. — 1610 s.
5. Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary in 4 volumes. T.2 – M.:, Publication by bookseller-typographer M. O. Wolf, 1955. – 779 p.
6. Desktop dictionary for reference in all branches of knowledge in 3 volumes. T 2/ Ed. F. Toll and V. R. Zotov. – St. Petersburg: F. Toll, 1863-1864. – 1132 p.
7. Dictionary of scientific terms, foreign words and expressions included in the Russian language / Edited by V.V. Bitner. – St. Petersburg: Bulletin of Knowledge, 1905. – 951 p.
8. Dictionary of political, socio-economic and some other words / comp. Achadov. – M., 1906.
9. Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. In 4 volumes. T.2. 3rd ed./Ed. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the partnership M. O. Wolf, 1903-1909. — 1017 p.
10. Gulyaikhin V.N. Psychosocial forms of human legal nihilism // Questions of law and politics. 2012. No. 3. P. 108-148
11. Turgenev I.S. Full SOBR. Op. and letters: in 28 volumes. M.-L.: Nauka, 1960-1968.t.15, 245 p.

Information about the author: Marchenko Marina Nikolaevna, 1st year master’s student of the Faculty of Philology, direction: “Philology” of Bryansk State University named after academician I.G. Petrovsky

Scientific supervisor: Golovanevsky Arkady Leonidovich, Doctor of Philology, Professor, Head of the Department of Russian Language, Bryansk State University named after Academician I.G. Petrovsky

Characteristics of a nihilist

Who is a nihilist? Let's describe it briefly. This is a person who denies any norms, rules and values. This is a skeptic, a cynic, a critic, an egoist who focuses only on the material and physical. No one and nothing is a decree for him. He denies the very structure of the world. A nihilist always maintains a sober mind and does not give free rein to emotions and feelings. He is sure that social foundations, norms and orders limit his freedom and interfere with his life.

A nihilist can unite with people like him. But at the same time, all together they exist as if autonomously from society. They create their own world where outsiders are not allowed. There are no authorities or leaders in this group. There no one obeys anyone, no one admits warm feelings to anyone. These people unite to stand together against the whole world. And they demonstrate their disgust, contempt, and disdain through sarcasm, provocations, caustic jokes, ridicule, and impudent antics.

Who are nihilists: characteristics

The term “nihilist” is quite often used in the political sphere, where it has its own meaning – a person who does not recognize anything. But in a broader sense, we can say who a nihilist is in simple words - one who denies love, family, health, laws. The term is often used in relation to the younger generation in general and the worldview of specific people in particular.

A nihilist is a person who can find others like himself. But, even moving in his own environment, he is, as a rule, cut off from the real life of the whole society, along with like-minded people. They seem to create a vacuum around themselves, denying the surrounding world of rules, laws and values. Nihilists are those who deny even the value of life, other people's and their own. They do not recognize leadership, disdain authorities, are prone to distrust and do not want to obey anyone.

A nihilistic attitude is a non-acceptance of modern life rules and laws. At the same time, an adherent of philosophy may be a fan of the values ​​of another time and community, but most often nihilists are guided by their own norms and rules. Nihilistic views involve defiant behavior: cynicism, causticism, provocative behavior, ridicule, insolence. In short, a nihilistic attitude means an open demonstration of disdain and irritation with existing reality.

Causes

As we have already noted, from the point of view of psychology, nihilism is a defense mechanism of the psyche. And, like many problems, it has its roots in childhood. Nihilism is associated with a person’s non-acceptance and misunderstanding of himself, as well as with distrust of the world. This, in turn, is caused by distrust of parents. Probably, in childhood, the nihilist encountered an authoritarian style of family education or overprotection. That is, a person is accustomed to the fact that he was not loved, suppressed, forced. This gave rise to aggression, anger, and coldness in him. However, at the same time, every person has a living need to join society. Such a contradiction further fuels the internal conflict of the nihilist.

Interesting! The problem of public and personal, preservation of individuality and self-realization in society is one of the most difficult problems in psychology. Not all people can be free, preserve and express their uniqueness within the system, while maintaining identity with some group.

Nihilism and nihilists in Russia

After the shameful defeat in the Crimean War, critical sentiments and calls for the search for a social utopia were taken up by a variety of segments of the population, and commoners came to the fore in this movement. Such attributes of their social status as poverty, ignoble origin and lack of stable income, which were previously considered humiliating, now turned into inalienable advantages, more than replacing the formal title of nobleman. Moreover, the prestige of this class was shaken, and therefore the luxury and elitism of the aristocracy was replaced by fashion for the ascetic and simple lifestyle of commoners, a kind of version of Russian puritans. To overcome their marginality, commoners strove to receive a good education and were always actively engaged in self-development.

Ethical standards and unshakable behavioral guidelines play an important role in the nihilist’s belief system. Actively opposing themselves to the upper noble class, the commoners tried to adhere to very practical values. The problem of reorganizing society on new supra-moral foundations, where the main criterion would be the question of public benefit, became paramount. Like Bazarov, who in his actions was guided solely by the idea of ​​what was useful at the moment. By the way, despite its dual position in the class structure of Russian society, belonging to the commoners as a “non-taxable” class gave some personal independence, which neither the merchants, nor the philistines, nor, naturally, the peasants had. We are talking, first of all, about freedom of movement and residence anywhere in the empire, with the right to enter the civil service. The commoners had permanent passports and were required to provide education to their children. Probably, the factor of education played an important role in the fact that many young people, who came from commoners, quickly became radicalized, desperately, perhaps even fanatically, believing in the ideas of reorganizing society on the basis of justice and brotherhood. As the representative of the next wave of revolutionaries of the 1870s, P. N. Tkachev, wrote, “our young men are revolutionaries not because of their knowledge, but because of their social status... The environment that raised them consists either of the poor, who earn their bread by the sweat of their brow, or lives on bread from the state; At every step she feels economic powerlessness, her dependence. And the consciousness of one’s powerlessness, one’s insecurity, a feeling of dependence always leads to a feeling of discontent, to embitterment, to protest.”

The essence of nihilism

The essence or philosophy of nihilism (principles and beliefs, features of the thinking of a nihilist):

• there is nothing that cannot be seen or touched (for example, a nihilist is sure that there is no God until the contrary is proven);
• there is no objective morality and morality - only a subjective vision of the world;
• there is no meaning or truth in life, so no one thing can be considered as the most preferable.

A nihilist will never believe in anything just like that; he needs a logical explanation, facts, reasons. He will not believe in something until there is irrefutable evidence of its existence. The nihilist denies everything that can be denied. He stands for complete freedom from faith, rights, frameworks, norms, values, society, family, power, etc. Manifestations of nihilism may change, as well as the understanding of this phenomenon, but the phenomenon itself will never disappear.

Kinds

Types of nihilism in modern society:

• social is the denial of norms, morality, rules, stereotypes;
• legal is the denial of laws, the regulatory framework of society;
• moral nihilism or ethical is the denial of morality and morality due to the inability to justify the evil and injustice of the whole world;
• cultural is the negation of culture, the creation of subcultures;
• youthful or demonstrative nihilism is the desire of a teenager to express himself, to stand out from the “gray mass”;
• mereological is the negation of something whole, unified.

There are other types of nihilism, for example, political, cosmic, existential. You can name even more types, the essence is one – denial, non-acceptance. Only the subject of negation changes. A common feature of all forms and types of nihilism is a rejection of the norms accepted in society.

Separately, it is worth noting positive nihilism. In short, its essence is this: we are all going to die anyway, so let’s have fun, enjoy ourselves and live the way we want. After death, it won't matter what you did right or wrong, so why not give up all these rules and regulations right now?

Famous nihilists

There have always been those who criticized or supported nihilism. Famous representatives of nihilism among philosophers, psychologists, writers and revolutionaries:

• M.A. Bakunin - Russian thinker and revolutionary anarchist;
• P.A. Kropotkin - Russian revolutionary anarchist;
• DI. Pisarev - Russian publicist and literary critic, translator, democratic revolutionary;
• E. Fromm - German philosopher;
• Nietzsche is a German psychologist.

Some researchers classify V.I. as a nihilist. Lenin.

How to get rid of nihilism

Do we need to get rid of nihilism? If we view this as a defense mechanism, then yes, it needs to be dealt with. Excessive rationality, suppression of feelings and emotions are dangerous for burnout, depression or the development of other mental disorders. In addition, a nihilist cannot fully realize himself in society. The individual cannot develop outside of society, and nihilists do everything to get out of society, to destroy it, to destroy the system.

How to get rid of nihilism:

1. Admit the problem. Analyze and make a list of what nihilism deprives you of.
2. Remember when disgust for the world first arose. Determine the approximate cause of your condition.
3. Know and accept yourself, see the uniqueness of each person. Do you believe science? Stock up on research, books on psychology and study the problem of abilities, inclinations, and temperament. We are not such biorobots, although in many ways this is true.
4. Determine the main unsatisfied (frustrated) need. Think about what tools you lack and how to get them in society.
5. Find what is valuable to you, come up with your “before and after story” (Mark Manson's definition). What does it mean? For example, this could be raising a worthy citizen of society, writing a book, creating your own school or courses, developing your own website or writing a column in some magazine. I think that every person is a nihilist in some way, but at the same time everyone can find what they like in our society.

Often getting rid of nihilism involves working with childhood traumas. Not all people are ready and able to make this journey on their own. As motivation, remind yourself often that trying to destroy the world is trying to protect yourself before the world destroys you. So what or who are you actually protecting yourself from? What is still meaningful and alive to you? You are disingenuous when you say that you live only according to the laws of reason. Something makes you angry, afraid, hate. What is this?

An example of nihilism

You can find many examples of nihilism in literature. One of the brightest nihilists of literature is Bazarov from the work of I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". Few people know that the writer was inspired to create such an image by a real person - a doctor whom Turgenev had the chance to meet.

What kind of person is this - Bazarov:

• he argues with everyone and always, puts himself in opposition to everything;
• he doesn’t care what others think about him;
• he does not choose his words, does not try to be tactful or affable, friendly;
• he denies all social orders.

He calls art, religion and philosophy rottenness and stupidity. For him there is only one authority - science. Neither faith nor people interest him. He treats humans exclusively as a biological species and believes that all people are the same. He does not believe in love, the soul and is not subject to emotions. He is always guided by reason.

As it later becomes clear, Bazarov lives in conflict with himself, family and society. On the basis of this, his attitude to the world, his philosophy of life arose.

Nihilist in Russian literature

[Definition] Nihilism is the denial of everything that has not been proven by science and does not have a valid scientific basis;
refutation of “old” truths and established ways of life; in a sense - absolutized nonconformism. [/Definition] In Russian literature, nihilism and its representatives were first encountered only at the end of the nineteenth century. This was a fairly new and controversial phenomenon in Russian literature, which immediately caused a lot of discussion among readers. The most popular themes in nihilistic works are the following: the theme of fathers and sons, the theme of love as a feeling, the theme of the soul and spirituality, the theme of contradiction, the theme of friendship. Most of these themes are so-called “eternal” themes, and, therefore, works that include the theme of nihilism are eternal.

The most famous work, the main character of which is a nihilist, is, of course, the novel “Fathers and Sons” by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev. The main character of this work is Bazarov, a young scientist, without noble origin, however, well educated. He does not value the qualities of his soul in a person, giving preference to the qualities of his personality, he is very cynical and does not believe anything that has not been proven. He is a nihilist - a person for whom there are no authorities. Turgenev’s work calls into question such an idea, such adherence to principles. At the end of the work itself, Bazarov does not stand up to his own principles, does not pass the test - the idea of ​​nihilism turns out to be a failure for him. In this situation, the author wants to emphasize the failure of the idea of ​​nihilism for the modern realities of everyday life.

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Nihilism in Russian literature has the following characteristic features:

1. Strict adherence to principles and a serious attitude towards your idea, conviction in it. These principles, according to the concept of nihilism, are inviolable, and, therefore, this means strict adherence and observance of the principles of the theory of nihilism.
2. Despite the rigor and strict adherence to principles, as well as, together, indifference and contempt for everything “anti-scientific” and unproven, nihilism in Russian literature is an exception and is often unsuitable in everyday life and in real life. Even in the work of I. S. Turgenev, the nihilist Bazarov does not pass the test of love, all his principles turn out to be false and collapse.
3. Nihilism is a kind of nonconformism, representing the first, timid attempts to disobey, to exit the system. So, based on this assumption, we can say that nihilism, so popular in the second half of the nineteenth century, testified to the emergence of revolutionary, meritocratic and socialist political movements in our country.

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Thus, based on all this, we can conclude that nihilism is one of the main trends and directions in Russian literature of the second half of the nineteenth century. Nihilism has become a kind of symbol of the birth of a revolution in Russia. Nihilism in Russian literature is a reflection of barely outlined, but already formed changes in the Russian customary way of life and system.