Biological prerequisites for deviant behavior; methodological development on the topic
Biological prerequisites for deviant behavior
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Biological and psychological interpretations of the causes of deviation were widespread. Italian physician Cesare Lombroso believed that there is a direct connection between criminal behavior and human biological characteristics. He argued that the "criminal type" is the result of a degradation to earlier stages of human evolution. This type can be identified by such characteristic features as a protruding lower jaw, a sparse beard and decreased sensitivity to pain. Lombroso's theory became widespread, and some thinkers became his followers - they also established a connection between deviant behavior and certain physical traits of people. William H. Sheldon (1940), a famous American psychologist and physician, emphasized the importance of body structure. He believed that in people a certain body structure means the presence of characteristic personality traits. An endomorph (a person of moderate obesity with a soft and somewhat rounded body) is characterized by sociability, the ability to get along with people and self-indulgence. The mesomorph (whose body is strong and slender) tends to be restless, active and not overly sensitive. And finally, the ectomorph, distinguished by the thinness and fragility of the body, is prone to introspection, endowed with increased sensitivity and nervousness. Based on a study of the behavior of two hundred young men in a rehabilitation center, Sheldon concluded that mesomorphs are most prone to deviation, although they do not always become criminals. Although such biological theories were popular at the beginning of the 20th century, other concepts gradually replaced them. Proponents of the psychological interpretation associated deviation with psychological traits (mental instability, disturbance of psychological balance, etc.). There has been evidence that some mental disorders, especially schizophrenia, may be due to genetic predisposition. In addition, some biological characteristics can influence the psyche of an individual. For example, if a boy is teased for being short, his response may be directed against society and result in deviant behavior. But in such cases, biological factors only indirectly contribute to deviation, combined with social or psychological ones. Therefore, any biological analysis of deviation must take into account a complex set of many factors.
Biological factors are expressed in the existence of unfavorable physical or anatomical features of the human body that complicate its social adaptation. Moreover, here we are talking, of course, not about special genes that fatally determine deviant behavior, but only about those factors that, along with socio-pedagogical correction, also require medical correction.
These include:
- genetic, which are inherited. These may be mental development disorders, hearing and vision defects, physical defects, and damage to the nervous system. These lesions are acquired, as a rule, during the mother’s pregnancy due to poor and unhealthy nutrition, her consumption of alcoholic beverages, and smoking; diseases of the mother (physical and mental injuries during pregnancy, chronic and infectious somatic diseases, traumatic brain and mental injuries, sexually transmitted diseases); the influence of hereditary diseases, and especially heredity burdened by alcoholism;
- psychophysiological, associated with the influence on the human body of psychophysiological stress, conflict situations, the chemical composition of the environment, new types of energy, leading to various somatic problems. allergic, toxic diseases;
- physiological, including speech defects, external unattractiveness, shortcomings of a person’s constitutional and somatic makeup, which in most cases cause a negative attitude from others, which leads to a distortion of the system of interpersonal relationships in the team, especially among children among their peers.
Biological prerequisites for deviant behavior.
Biological prerequisites include: hereditary genetic characteristics, innate properties of the individual (acquired during intrauterine development and childbirth), imprinting (imprinting in the early stages of ontogenesis).
The biological factor regulates the following characteristics of individual existence:
· individual uniqueness of the ontogenesis process (including the rate of maturation/aging);
· gender (sexual) differences;
· age characteristics;
· physical constitution;
· health and stamina;
· state and typological properties of the nervous system.
Theories that explain deviant behavior in terms of biological causes were probably among the first to emerge. Initially, researchers paid attention mainly to constitutional features. In the 19th century Italian psychiatrist and criminologist Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909) proposed a biosociological theory in which he linked human criminal behavior with his anatomical structure. The objects of close attention were: the skull, brain, nose, ears, hair color, tattoo, handwriting, skin sensitivity, and the mental properties of the criminal. Using the anthropometric method, the researcher identified approximately 37 characteristics of the “congenital criminal type,” including: a prominent lower jaw, a flattened nose, a sparse beard, and attached earlobes. Later, C. Lombroso’s theory, although it entered the history of scientific thought, was recognized as scientifically untenable.
Another prominent representative of this trend is the American doctor and psychologist William Sheldon. (1898-1984), who substantiated the connection between types of temperament (and behavior), as well as types of human somatic structure. The three leading body types: endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic - correlate with three types of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia, cerebrotonia. Their combination gives a specific psychotype. For example, somatotonia is characterized by such traits as the need for pleasure, energy, desire for dominance and power, risk-taking, aggressiveness, and insensitivity. On the contrary, with cerebrotonia, restraint, sensitivity, social phobia, and a tendency to loneliness are observed.
A special place among biological theories is occupied by the evolutionary approach, based on the laws of natural selection and heredity proposed by Charles Darwin. Supporters of the evolutionary approach consider various aspects of human behavior as a manifestation of species-specific hereditary programs, while critics of the evolutionary approach consider the transfer of the laws of animal behavior to human psychology to be unfounded.
The ethological approach of Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989), developing the ideas of Darwin, explains various phenomena of human behavior, such as aggression, primarily by the innate instinct of the struggle for existence. This instinct developed during evolution as biologically expedient. The strength of aggression, according to the researcher, depends on the amount of accumulated aggressive energy and the strength of specific stimuli that trigger aggressive behavior. In humans, unlike animals, violence against members of their own species is widespread.
Modern research into the biological determinants of human behavior is actively carried out in several fields: biology, medicine, criminology, physiology, and especially genetics.
With the names of outstanding scientists of the 19th century. Francis Galton (1822 - 1911) and Gregor Mendel (1822 - 1884) are responsible for the beginning of the development of psychogenetics. In 1865 they published the results of the first studies in the field of psychogenetics, or eugenics. In subsequent years, F. Galton conducted a systematic study of individual differences, using twin and statistical methods for the first time. His work initiated numerous studies of the hereditary determinants of intelligence. Personality characteristics and behavior have been studied to a much lesser extent.
Within the framework of biocriminology, deliberate attempts have been made to establish a connection between deviant (criminal) behavior and hereditary characteristics of a person. One of the evidence of this connection is the results of genetic research by W. Pierce, conducted in the mid-60s. XX century His research led to the conclusion that the presence of an extra Y chromosome in men determines their predisposition to criminal behavior (among prisoners, this anomaly occurs 15 times more often than usual). At the same time, critics of this approach note that deviance in carriers of an extra Y chromosome may be a consequence not of a chromosomal abnormality, but of associated individual characteristics, such as tall stature, rapid maturation, and low intelligence.
Other biological factors of deviant behavior may be: brain damage (especially the frontal lobes), organic brain diseases, certain properties of the nervous system.
Internal biological processes play a role in the formation of deviant behavior. They determine the strength and nature of our reactions to any environmental influences. Despite the existence of facts confirming the existence of biological bases of deviant behavior, they operate only in the context of a certain social environment. Moreover, social conditions themselves may well cause biological changes in the body, determining, for example, the reactivity of the nervous system or hormonal levels.
Biological approaches to the study of the causes of deviant behavior (C. Lombroso, W. Sheldon, etc.).
The biological interpretation of the nature and causes of deviant behavior has a long history, but classical scientific works in this direction appeared only in the 19th century. First of all, these are the works of the Italian psychiatrist C. Lombroso, in which he substantiated the connection between the anatomical structure of a person and criminal behavior. He introduced the concept of a “congenital criminal”, which can be defined by physical, anatomical and anthropological characteristics, among them, in particular: a massive, protruding lower jaw, a flattened nose, a sparse beard, attached earlobes, a low forehead, etc. Using in his research practice using the anthropometric method, he identified about 37 characteristics of a “born criminal.” The most radical theoretical criticism of C. Lombroso's teaching was carried out by the French social psychologist G. Tarde at the end of the 19th century; later Lombroso's teaching was recognized as scientifically untenable.
In the 20th century American physician and psychologist W. Sheldon substantiated the connection between the types of somatophysical structure of a person, his temperament and forms of behavior. He identified three types of physique: endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic, which correlate with three types of temperament (viscerogony, somatotonia, cerebrotonia). Their combination indicates a specific psychotype. For example, cerebrotonic people are characterized by restraint, sensitivity, social phobia, and a tendency to loneliness; Somatotonics are characterized by a need for pleasure, energy, a desire for dominance and power, a tendency to take risks, aggressiveness, and insensitivity.
An important place among biological theories is occupied by the evolutionary approach proposed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin on the basis of the laws of natural selection and heredity. Here, various aspects of human behavior are considered as manifestations of species-specific hereditary programs. The Austrian naturalist K. Lorenz developed the ideas of Charles Darwin. He initially viewed human behavior as aggressive, based on instincts. Evolutionary theorists believed that the source of aggressive behavior was another innate mechanism: the fight instinct, inherent in all animals, including humans. Critics of the evolutionary approach consider the transfer of the laws of animal behavior to human psychology to be unfounded.
Modern research into the biological determinants of human behavior continues actively and is embodied in biology, medicine, criminology, physiology, and especially genetics.
10. Sociological approaches to the study of the causes of deviant behavior (anomie theory, stigma theory, structural analysis theory).
The sociological approach to describing the causes of deviance takes into account the social and structural factors of deviant behavior. For the first time, a sociological explanation of deviation was reflected in the theory of anomie proposed by E. Durkheim. Anomia (“nomos” - norm, “a” - denial) is a pathology of social life, a mismatch of values, moral norms and ideals, resulting in disorganization of people - all this contributes to deviant behavior. According to Durkheim, man lacks any “natural” limitations of needs and desires. The restrictions are of a social nature, i.e. are established by society through social norms. Anomie occurs when society is unable to establish the framework of social norms, when there is a weak consensus in society regarding values and goals, which leads to a loss of effectiveness of their influence on the individual.
The American sociologist R. Merton believed that the cause of deviant behavior is anomie - inconsistency between the goals of society and socially approved means of achieving these goals. For example, when people strive for financial success but become convinced that it cannot be achieved through approved means, they may resort to many illegal means to achieve this goal.
One of the most important approaches to explaining the causes of crime is the theory of stigmatization. Proponents of this theory interpret deviations as a process of interaction between deviants and people without deviations. Stigmatization is the process of singling out and “branding” a person on the basis of some unacceptable deviations from the norm for the purpose of applying social sanctions and a stereotypical set of social reactions to him. The term “stigma” (stamp, label) indicates the shameful status of an individual. The social basis of stigmatization lies in the historical, religious and social prejudices that have developed in a particular society, which most often come down to ideas about the danger and inferiority of a person. People who have a higher social status, who represent the forces of law and order, who are able to impose their moral principles on others, are the main source of labeling. Often, if the appearance or actions of individuals are perceived as deviant, then people around them strive to somehow designate the deviance of the “violators”: they “stick a label” (stigma), and apply various forms of punishment. A person once stigmatized is likely to be viewed as untrustworthy in the future. Attempts at social control over “violators” can lead to increased manifestations of deviance.
Within the framework of the sociological approach, one can distinguish an interactionist direction - structural analysis. It is dominated by the thesis that deviance is not a property inherent in any social behavior, but is nothing more than a consequence of the social assessment of certain behavior as deviant. Deviation is due to the ability of influential groups in society (the authorities, for example) to impose certain standards (standard of living, living conditions, social relations) on other layers (strata, local societies). Analysis of the causes of deviant behavior in this case is aimed at studying the processes, phenomena and factors that determine or influence the attribution of the status of deviant behavior and the status of deviance to an individual (groups, strata), that is, it examines how attitudes towards people as deviants are formed. Structural analysis includes three explanations: cultural, which considers the cause of deviation to be conflicts between the norms of the subculture and the dominant culture; conflictological, according to which deviation is the result of opposition to the norms of capitalist society and is determined by its socio-economic nature; within the framework of “social anomie,” deviant behavior is caused by a discrepancy between the goals proclaimed by a given culture and the institutionalized means of achieving them.
