REGULATION OF VITAL FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANISM

2.3.1. Self-regulation of body functions

Self-regulation of physiological functions -

the main mechanism for maintaining the vital functions of the body at a relatively constant level. Self-regulation, having arisen in the process of evolution as a result of adaptation to environmental influences, is inherent in all forms of life activity. In the course of natural selection, in the process of adaptation to the environment, organisms developed general regulatory mechanisms of various physiological natures (neurohumoral, endocrine, immunological, etc.), aimed at achieving and maintaining a relative constancy of the internal environment.

The ability to maintain relative constancy of the internal environment appears at relatively high stages of development of the animal world. Thus, already in cartilaginous fish, the concentration of salts in the blood and tissues is independent of its changes in the external aquatic environment. Ganoid and teleost fish also maintain many constants of the internal environment.

In humans and highly organized animals, homeostatic mechanisms have reached a high degree of development. The relative constancy of their internal environment is maintained by neurohumoral physiological mechanisms that regulate the activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys and sweat glands, which ensure the removal of metabolic products from the body.

The most advanced homeostatic mechanisms in higher animals and humans include thermoregulation processes.

Certain signs of thermoregulation are already observed in animals with an unstable body temperature,
poikilothermic
(cold-blooded)
animals,
whose body temperature in most cases follows changes in the temperature of the external environment, not entirely passively.
However, we can only talk about actual thermoregulation in relation to homeothermic
(warm-blooded) animals. The constancy of body temperature is so great that normally its deviation in the “core of the body” does not exceed a few tenths of a degree even with the sharpest fluctuations in external temperature. A large number of complex regulatory processes are involved in maintaining normal body temperature, some of which are currently being studied.

is of particular importance for the body .

The stability of its active reaction (pH), osmotic pressure, glucose content, electrolyte ratio (sodium, potassium, calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus), etc. is well known. For example, blood pH, as a rule, does not go beyond 7. 35—7.47. Even sudden disturbances in acid-base metabolism with pathological accumulation of acids in tissue fluid, for example, in diabetic acidosis, have very little effect on the active blood reaction.

Many individual mechanisms regulating intra- and extra-systemic relationships in some cases have mutually opposite (antagonistic) effects that balance each other. This leads to the establishment of a mobile physiological background and allows the living system to maintain relative dynamic constancy,

despite changes in the environment and shifts that occur during the life of the organism.

Homeostasis and homeostatic regulation.

Among the holistic reactions of the body that determine its very existence, maintaining a constant internal environment plays a special role.

The concept of homeostasis (from the Greek homoios - similar, similar, and stasis - standing, immobility) (homeostasis) was first introduced in 1929 by Walter Cannon, who creatively developed the ideas of C. Bernard about the dynamic nature of the constancy of the internal environment. W. Cannon used this term in two senses: as the constancy of the internal environment of the body, ensured by the activity of a number of physiological processes, and as the totality of the latter. Modern definitions of homeostasis include both aspects.

By the internal environment, W. Cannon understood blood, lymph and tissue fluid. The main parameters characterizing the internal environment were called homeostatic constants.

As an example, let us name the concentration of glucose, sodium and other ions, the value of the membrane potential, the values of arterial and osmotic pressure, blood gas tension, and temperature. They differ in the range of variation, i.e., the reaction rate determined by the genotype. The narrower the range of variation of the constant, the more significant its changes are for homeostasis and the greater the number of physiological systems involved in its regulation. An example is the pH of liquid environments and body temperature in warm-blooded animals. Homeostatic constants with a wider reaction norm expand the adaptive capabilities of the body. At any given moment, homeostatic regulation is aimed primarily at achieving the optimal level of the constant that has deviated as much as possible from its average value.

The boundaries of homeostasis can be rigid and flexible, changing depending on individual, age, gender, social and other conditions. Hard constants

(for example, the osmotic pressure of the blood) allow only minor deviations from their level,
plastic constants
(for example, the level of blood pressure or nutrients in the blood) vary over a fairly large range and over a long time.
The significant variability in blood pressure levels that is normal in a healthy person has a certain physiological meaning. Thus, increased blood pressure as a result of physical activity or emotional change improves blood supply to many organs and tissues. At the same time, a prolonged increase in blood pressure leads to blood supply disorders -
hemorrhages, such as heart attacks and strokes.

Any physiological, physical, chemical or emotional influences (be it air temperature, changes in atmospheric pressure, a normal therapeutic procedure or excitement, joy, sadness, grief, taking medication, etc.) can cause the body to leave a state of dynamic equilibrium, in which he resides. Thus, any influence may turn out to be “deviating” or “disturbing”. Let's look at a fairly simple example. Carbohydrates serve as the most important source of energy for the body. As a result of disintegration and mainly “combustion” in oxygen, energy-rich carbohydrate molecules are gradually transformed into molecules of final products - water and carbon dioxide, which have a small energy reserve. The energy released in this case goes to cover the energy needs of the body's cells. Not a single cell, not a single organ can exist even for a short time without expending energy and consuming “fuel” in the form of carbohydrates.

Nerve and muscle cells are most sensitive to a lack of fuel supply. Especially nervous ones, since they have insignificant reserves in the form of glycogen and even a small and short-term decrease in blood sugar levels (hypoglycemia) leads to severe functional disorders that cause threatening phenomena in the condition of the whole organism. The functions of nerve formations are entirely dependent on blood sugar levels. In the blood of a healthy person there is 44.4-66.6 mmol of sugar in the form of glucose.

Note the strict constancy of blood sugar levels,

which, apparently, is most favorable for the course of vital processes and metabolism.
It is ensured by a very precisely maintained balance between sugar consumption and its entry into the blood. There are at least seven to eight mechanisms that maintain this balance. plays a central role here .
Blood sugar consumption especially increases with increased muscle activity. You might expect that this would cause your blood sugar levels to drop sharply, causing a dangerous condition called hypoglycemia.

However, this does not happen: in the liver, as a carbohydrate depot, glycogen breaks down to the stage of glucose, which provides replacement of sugar in the blood. One would also expect a contrasting phenomenon: after eating a meal rich in carbohydrates, the latter, being absorbed in the small intestine, enter the blood in large quantities, which should lead to a significant and persistent increase in blood sugar levels. But this is not observed either.

This is due to the fact that the sugar-rich blood flowing from the intestine does not immediately enter the general circulation, but first passes through the portal vein through the liver. In the liver cells, venous blood glucose is absorbed and glycogen is formed, so that the blood sugar level coming from the liver into the general circulation remains at approximately normal levels. When consuming a very large amount of sugar, only a small and short-term increase in its content in the blood is observed, the so-called nutritional hyperglycemia.

In this situation, due to exceeding the “renal threshold” for glucose, its excess is eliminated in the urine.

What adequate stimuli excite and activate the mechanisms for regulating blood sugar levels?

The latter can obviously come into action only in response to certain disturbing stimuli.
It is safe to say that such a stimulus is the blood sugar level itself,
changes in which determine and determine the regulatory activity of the body.
This activity is carried out in cases where blood sugar levels become higher or lower than normal. The entry into action of regulatory mechanisms is caused by a change in the value, the constancy and regulation of which is necessary for the body. This fact indicates the presence of feedback here,
similar to a technical closed control loop. In fact, changes in blood sugar levels cause regulatory actions that are opposite to the disturbance. The latter cause new changes in blood sugar levels; their shifts lead in turn to new amendments, etc.

Using technical terminology, it can be emphasized that the blood sugar regulatory circuit is a “transition and transfer lag system.” A necessary condition for any regulation is the continuous measurement of the quantity to be regulated using a receptor measuring device. It is believed that the receptors of the periphery (liver, pancreas), as well as the sugar-sensitive cells of the centers (hypothalamus), form an afferent flow of signals, converted in the diencephalon and pituitary gland into efferent messages emanating from the centers and carrying orders to the executive mechanisms. (glucocorticoids) play an extremely important role in regulating blood sugar levels

their medulla
(adrenaline),
as well as the pancreas
(insulin and glucagon)
and the thyroid gland
(thyroxine)
(see Chapter 6).

Having completed a brief examination of carbohydrate regulation, let us return again to the fundamental physiological law - homeostasis.

Any irritation, especially
stress,
leads to the emergence of a complex set of reactions, the main goal of which is to adapt the body to changed conditions, to prevent or smooth out a possible shift in the internal environment, in the state and activity of organs, physiological systems, and the body as a whole.

For the development of the body, additional amounts of energy and plastic substances are constantly needed, which cannot be acquired by a completely balanced homeostatic system. Otherwise, in order to implement the body’s development program, a violation of stability, a violation of homeostasis is necessary. Thus, along with the law of preservation of homeostasis in a developing system, another law must be observed - the law of deviation of homeostasis.

Laws of homeostatic regulation.

Changes in homeostatic constants under the influence of influencing factors must be eliminated by the system

mechanisms of homeostatic regulation. The patterns of changes in homeostatic constants themselves are described by several rules.

Background rule derived from experimental and clinical practice

states: “The direction and magnitude of the change in the homeostatic constant under the influence of the influencing factor depend on its initial (background) values.” As an example, we can cite changes in thermoregulation in a person leaving a cold room (+12.6 °C), where he was chilly, outside (-15.6 °C) and returning to the same room again. When a person goes outside, thermoregulation decreases heat transfer due to vasoconstriction of skin vessels, contractile thermogenesis and catabolic processes in the liver and digestive tract increase, the lumen of blood vessels in the internal organs increases, and the tone of skeletal and smooth muscles increases. Against the background of increased thermogenesis and reduced heat transfer, adapted to -15.6°C, returning to the room (+12.6°C) causes an initial feeling of overheating and contributes to the launch of reactions of the opposite direction with subsequent adaptation of thermoregulation to the new temperature regime of the environment. Consequently, homeostatic regulation aimed at stabilizing the human body temperature changes and, depending on the background, can be carried out by different mechanisms.

Another feature of homeostatic regulation is formulated in the form of the rule of overcompensation:

“The regulation of shifts in homeostatic constants is hypercompensatory in nature.” In other words, the new value of the homeostatic constant achieved as a result of homeostasis is not identical to the background value, but exceeds it. This corresponds to the definition of homeostasis as the dynamic relative constancy of the internal environment.

At the cellular level, the law of hypercompensation can be illustrated by changes in the membrane potential of an excitable cell: the spike with its characteristic depolarization shift of the membrane potential and alkalization of the cytoplasm is replaced by a trace hyperpolarization. It represents hypercompensatory shifts in the membrane potential (more negative values than the resting potential) and the pH of the near-membrane cytoplasm (acidosis exceeds the background).

Types of homeostatic regulation.

They differ in the conditions for launching the corresponding mechanisms.
Thus, in the above examples, homeostatic regulation by deviation takes place, when the very change in the value of the constant causes the launch of homeostatic regulatory mechanisms. This type of regulation is typical for those cases when the influencing factor is new to the organism. As the impact is repeated and its parameters are memorized, hypercompensatory changes in homeostatic constants appear, ahead of their primary shifts. Such advanced homeostatic regulation has energy-saving significance.
Anticipatory homeostatic regulation can cause a distortion of the sign of the primary reaction. For example, it has been shown that drinking alcohol for the first time causes a primary response in humans to lower body temperature (deflection regulation),

whereas with repeated applications it increases
(anticipatory regulation).
Similarly, the initial electric shock causes tachycardia, and with repeated applications - bradycardia. The same type of advanced homeostatic regulation underlies the increase in tolerance to pharmacological agents during their repeated administration. It is used in teaching patients and experimental animals to regulate their own systemic blood pressure.

Anticipatory homeostatic regulation is not always associated with learning in ontogenesis. Genetically fixed memory contributes to the inclusion of anticipatory homeostasis before the onset of transcendental or close to them shifts in constants. This can be seen in the example of exploratory eating behavior (homeostatic behavior

according to A.D. Slonim), which starts before the blood glucose level decreases to critical values.
In the control of advanced homeostasis associated with innate and acquired memory, a significant role is played by the circadian rhythms of activity
of the neuroendocrine system of the body, determined by the ratio of periods of light and darkness, the Earth’s magnetic field, periods of solar activity, lunar cycles, etc.

At different levels of implementation of homeostatic mechanisms, the relationship between homeostatic regulation of the two types may differ. Thus, at the subcellular and cellular levels, regulation by deviation predominates, causing a sequential change in the reactions of phosphorylation - dephosphorylation, catabolism - anabolism, endocytosis - exocytosis, the open state of the ion channel closed, etc. In general, homeostasis of intracellular pH, osmotic pressure and cell volume is ensured . At the levels of systemic regulation of the values of the main homeostatic constants, both types of regulation are equal, while at the level of the organism the anticipatory one predominates. All levels of regulation are interconnected, and their hierarchy is determined by the threshold of sensitivity to changes in the regulated homeostatic constant and the possibilities of its regulation at a given level.

Most levels of regulation of the values of each constant are characterized by interchangeability of homeostatic mechanisms and multi-circuitry of regulatory influences. Thus, the ability to regulate the level of one’s own blood pressure during hypotension can be developed in several ways: through suggestion, recollection of an emotionally stressful situation, increasing the tone of certain skeletal muscles or special exercises, as well as holding one’s breath. Each of them is associated with various neurohormonal mechanisms for regulating blood pressure, acting on different components of the cardiovascular system and controlling its centers through the triggering of appropriate reactions. This achieves reliability and flexibility of homeostatic regulation of the values of this constant. It should be emphasized that in a living organism, selective regulation of any one constant never occurs, since the constants are interrelated. It leads to the minimization of energy costs for solving such complex problems as developing and maintaining an optimal mode of interaction of physiological systems or an organism with the environment under changed conditions, maintaining certain levels of a steady state and maintaining the integrity of the organism.

The state of homeostasis, established in the process of evolutionary development, allows the body to adapt to the conditions of the surrounding world. Adaptation in this case can be optimal, suboptimal and even harmful, associated with disruption of life. A living system is capable of restructuring, moving to a new homeostatic level, activating some regulatory systems and inhibiting others.

Adaptation to stress factors is carried out at all levels of organization, starting from the cellular level, however, to implement a homeostatic protective reaction, higher animals have a specialized adaptation system.

The main components of this system are:

adrenal cortex,

producing a defense hormone -
cortisol;
the pituitary gland, which releases
corticotropin,
which regulates the production of cortisol;

and finally the hypothalamus,

controlling the secretion of corticotropin, as well as other parts of the central nervous system (see section 6.2).

Self-regulation

Self-regulation is the property of systems, as a result of reactions that compensate for the influence of external influences, to maintain internal stability at a certain, relatively constant level. Depending on the systems under consideration, self-regulation is the subject of study in various sciences: biology, psychology, sociology, economics, etc.

Higher educational institutions by constituent entities of the Russian Federation Universities by constituent entities of the Russian Federation Universities of St. Petersburg Lesgaft University

1. Self-regulation in psychology

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