Read the book Social psychology by G. D. Babushkin: online reading

Any person, unless he has adopted asceticism and lives the life of a hermit, is part of society. He interacts with other people and fulfills his social role. And, as a rule, the communication of different people with each other is always different. All people are different and they may belong to different social groups, occupy different social positions, have different status, etc. Communication and relationships between people are influenced by many factors, and our task, as people striving for self-development and a better understanding of human nature, is to understand what these factors are and what are the general features of people’s interactions and their behavior. And social psychology will help us understand this topic, to which we dedicate the next lesson of our course. In this lesson we will understand what applied social psychology is, knowledge from the field of which we can successfully apply in practice. We will find out what people's relationships are based on, we will understand what the tasks and problems of social psychology are, we will talk about its subject, object and methods. And we will start by explaining the very concept of social psychology.

Concept of social psychology

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that is devoted to the study of human behavior in society and various groups, his perception of other people, communication with them and influence on them. Knowledge of the basics of social psychology seems to be very important for the psychologically correct education of a person and the organization of interaction between the individual and the team.

Social psychology is a science that is at the intersection of psychology and sociology, and therefore social psychology studies aspects characteristic of both sciences. To be more specific, we can say that social psychology studies:

Social psychology of personality
Social psychology of groups of people and communication
Social relations
Forms of spiritual activity

Social psychology also has its own sections:

Political psychology
Organizational psychology
Psychology of perception
Ethnopsychology
Historical psychology
Gender psychology

According to Galina Andreeva, the person whose name is associated with the development of social psychology in the USSR, this science is divided into three main sections:

Social psychology of groups
Social psychology of communication
Social psychology of personality

Based on this, we can describe the range of problems of social psychology.

What is it: concept

Social process is a significant change in social life carried out by groups of people to satisfy their interests.

Because society is made up of many different groups, there are constant clashes of views and opinions.

This leads to continuous changes in all areas of interaction between people.

Society cannot exist without social processes, since its full development and functioning involve constant changes and transformations.

Problems, subject and object of social psychology

Social psychology, considering mainly the individual in society, sets as its task to determine under what conditions the individual assimilates social influences and under what conditions he realizes his social essence. It reveals how social-typical traits are formed, why in some cases they appear, and in others some new ones have appeared. When studying, the system of interpersonal relationships, behavioral and emotional regulation is taken into account. In addition, the behavior and activities of the individual are considered in specific social groups, the contribution of an individual to the activities of the entire group and the reasons influencing the magnitude and value of this contribution are studied. The main guideline in the study of personality for social psychology is the relationship between the individual and the group.

The subject of social psychology is the patterns of emergence, functioning and manifestation of socio-psychological phenomena at the micro, average and macro levels, as well as in different areas and conditions. But this relates more to the theoretical side of science. If we talk about the practical side of social psychology, then its subject will be a set of laws of psychodiagnostics, counseling and the use of psychotechnologies in the field of socio-psychological phenomena.

The objects of social psychology include the carriers of socio-psychological phenomena themselves:

Personality in a group and system of relationships
Human-to-human interaction (relatives, colleagues, partners, etc.)
Small group (family, class, group of friends, work shift, etc.)
Interaction between a person and a group (leaders and followers, superiors and subordinates, teachers and students, etc.)
Interaction of groups of people (competitions, debates, conflicts, etc.)
Large social group (ethnicity, social class, political party, religious denomination, etc.)

To better understand what social psychology does and what it studies, you might ask questions like why, for example, do some students in a classroom behave in one way and others in another? How does the development of a person’s personality, for example, affect whether he was raised by alcoholic parents or sports parents? Or why do some people tend to give instructions while others tend to follow them? If you are interested in learning the psychological details of people’s communication or the interaction of groups of people with each other, then social psychology will best satisfy your needs in this matter.

And, of course, in order for the study of the subject and object of social psychology to be most effective, and for research to produce maximum results, social psychology, like any other science, must have a certain set of methods in its arsenal. We will talk about them below.

Methods of social psychology

In general, it cannot be said about specific methods of social psychology that they are independent of the general methods of psychology. Therefore, the use of any method must be determined by the specifics of the science presented, i.e. any method must be applied in a certain “methodological key”.

The methods of social psychology themselves have their own classification and are divided into four groups:

Methods of empirical research (observation, experiment, instrumental methods, sociometry, document analysis, tests, survey, group personality assessment);
Modeling method;
Methods of managerial and educational influence;
Methods of socio-psychological influence.

Let's look at each group of methods briefly.

Methods of empirical research

Observation method. Observation in social psychology means the collection of information, which is carried out through direct, targeted and systematic perception and recording of socio-psychological phenomena in laboratory or natural conditions. The main material on the issue of observation is contained in our second lesson, from which you can learn about what types of observation exist and how they are characterized.

You can learn how the observation method works by testing it through your own personal experience. For example, you would like to know what arouses the greatest interest in your growing child in the course of everyday life. To find out, you just need to observe him, his behavior, mood, emotions, reactions. Most of all, attention should be paid to speech acts, their direction and content, physical actions and their expressiveness. Observation will help you identify some individual interesting traits in your child or, conversely, see that any trends are becoming consolidated. The main task when organizing observation is to accurately determine what you want to see and record, as well as the ability to identify factors that influence this. If necessary, observation can be carried out systematically, certain schemes can be used for it, and the results can be evaluated using any systems.

The document analysis method is one of the types of methods for analyzing the products of human activity. A document is any information recorded on any medium (paper, photographic film, hard drive, etc.). Analysis of documents allows us to create a fairly accurate psychological description of a person’s personality. This method is very popular among psychologists and ordinary people. For example, many parents, noticing some deviations in the development of their children and trying to find out their cause, turn to psychologists for help. And they, in turn, ask parents to bring drawings that their children drew. Based on the analysis of these drawings, psychologists come to an opinion and give parents appropriate recommendations. There is another example: as you know, many people keep diaries. Based on the study of these diaries, experienced specialists can create a psychological portrait of their owners and even determine what factors influenced the fact that a person’s personality was formed in a particular way.

The survey method , and in particular interviews and questionnaires, are widespread in modern society. Moreover, not only in psychological circles. Interviews are taken from people from completely different social strata in order to obtain various types of information. Questionnaires are conducted in the same way. If you, for example, are the head of a department in an organization and are trying to find an opportunity to improve the performance of your department or make the team environment more friendly, you can conduct a survey among your subordinates, having previously compiled a list of questions. A subtype of interview can be safely called an interview for employment. As an employer, you can create a list of questions, the answers to which will give you an objective “picture” of the applicant, which will help you make the right decision. If you are an applicant applying for a serious (and not only) position, then this is a reason to prepare for an interview, for which today there is a lot of useful information on the Internet.

The sociometry method refers to methods of socio-psychological research into the structure of small groups and a person as a member of a group. This method is used to study relationships between people and within a group. Sociometric studies can be individual or group, and their results are usually presented in the form of sociometric matrices or sociograms.

The method of group personality assessment (GPA) is to obtain characteristics of a person in a certain group, based on a survey of members of this group relative to each other. Using this method, experts assess the level of expression of a person’s psychological qualities, which are manifested in his appearance, activity and interaction with others.

Test method. Like some other methods of psychology, tests have already been discussed by us in one of the first lessons, and you can get acquainted in detail with the concept of “tests” there. Therefore, we will touch only on general issues. Tests are short, standardized and, in most cases, time-limited. Social psychology tests are used to determine differences between people and groups of people. During tests, the subject (or a group of them) performs certain tasks or selects answers to questions from a list. Data processing and analysis are performed in relation to a certain “key”. The results are expressed in test indicators.

Scales that measure social attitudes are among the tests that still receive special attention. Social attitude scales are used for a variety of purposes, but most often they are used to characterize the following areas: public opinion, the consumer market, the choice of effective advertising, people’s attitudes to work, problems, other people, etc.

Experiment. Another method of psychology that we touched on in the lesson “Methods of Psychology”. An experiment involves the researcher creating certain conditions of interaction between a subject (or a group of them) and certain situations in order to restore the patterns of this interaction. An experiment is good because it allows you to simulate phenomena and conditions for research and influence them, measure the reactions of subjects and reproduce the results.

Modeling

In the previous lesson we already touched on the modeling method in psychology and you can familiarize yourself with it by following the link. One has only to note that in social psychology modeling develops in two directions.

First

– is a technical imitation of processes, mechanisms and results of mental activity, i.e. mental modeling.

Second

– is the organization and reproduction of any activity, through the artificial creation of an environment for this activity, i.e. psychological modeling.

The modeling method allows you to obtain a wide variety of reliable socio-psychological information about a person or group of people. For example, in order to find out how employees of your organization will act in an extreme situation, will be under the influence of a state of panic, or will act together, simulate a fire situation: turn on the alarm, notify employees about the fire and observe what is happening. The data obtained will allow you to determine whether it is worth paying attention to working with employees on behavior in the workplace in emergency situations, to understand who is the leader and who is the follower, and also to learn about those qualities and character traits of your subordinates that you may be aware of. , did not know.

Methods of managerial and educational influence

Management and educational methods mean a set of actions (mental or practical) and techniques, the implementation of which can achieve the desired results. This is a kind of system of principles that provides guidance for organizing productive activities.

The influence of educational methods is manifested through the direct influence of one person on another (persuasion, demand, threat, encouragement, punishment, example, authority, etc.), the creation of special conditions and situations that force a person to express himself (express an opinion, do something action). Influence is also exerted through public opinion and joint activities, transmission of information, training, education, and upbringing.

Among the methods of managerial and educational influence there are:

Beliefs that form certain mental manifestations (views, concepts, ideas);
Exercises that organize activities and stimulate positive motives;
Assessment and self-esteem that determine actions, stimulate activity and assist in regulating behavior

An excellent example of managerial and educational influence is the upbringing of a child by his parents. It is through education that the basic traits and properties of his personality are born and formed in a person. It is not difficult to guess that if you want your child to grow up to be an independent, self-confident and successful person with a set of positive qualities (responsibility, determination, resistance to stress, positive thinking, etc.), then he should be raised properly. In the process of upbringing, it is important to conduct confidential conversations, be able to direct the child’s activities and behavior, reward him for success and make it clear when any offense has been committed. It is necessary to provide compelling arguments, arguments, and examples. Set examples of authoritative people and outstanding personalities. It is also important to always try to give the correct assessment of your child’s behavior, actions, actions and results, and to form adequate self-esteem in him. These are, of course, just a few examples. But it is important to understand that only in case of correct managerial and educational influence on a person’s personality it becomes possible to have a positive and constructive influence on him.

And the last group of methods of social psychology are methods of socio-psychological influence.

Methods of socio-psychological influence

Methods of socio-psychological influence are a set of techniques that influence the needs, interests, inclinations of a person, his attitudes, self-esteem, emotional state, as well as the socio-psychological attitudes of groups of people.

Using methods of socio-psychological influence, you can influence people’s needs and their motivation, change their desires, aspirations, emotions, mood, and behavior. By skillfully using these methods, you can change people's views, opinions and attitudes, as well as create new ones. By exerting the correct socio-psychological influence on a person, it is possible to ensure the most favorable position of a person in society, make his personality more resistant to the influence of various factors, and form a healthy worldview and attitude towards people, the world, and life. Sometimes methods of socio-psychological influence are used with the aim of destroying existing personality traits, stopping any activity, motivating the search for new goals, etc.

As we can see, the methods of social psychology are one of the most complex topics in psychological science. To understand these methods in detail, you need to spend more than one month studying them. But, despite this, one precise conclusion can be made: taking into account all the methodological difficulties, any socio-psychological study must have the ability to clearly identify and delimit the tasks to be solved, select an object, formulate the problem under study, clarify the concepts used and systematize the entire range of used for research methods. This is the only way to make socio-psychological research as accurate and effective as possible.

Text of the book “Social Psychology”

Chapter 2 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

2.1. The place of social psychology in the system of scientific knowledge

Social psychology is a science that studies patterns of behavior and activity of people determined by their social interaction.
Social psychology arose at the intersection of two sciences - psychology and sociology - and is based on the knowledge of these sciences, methodology, and methods. Requests for social and psychological research come from all spheres of social life: work, study, sports, etc. This is due to the fact that the need for conscious and effective management of social processes is constantly increasing. It can be noted that practical requests are ahead of the development of theoretical knowledge in social psychology. In this case, social psychology becomes an almost applied scientific discipline.

For social psychology, it is important to solve two problems:

1) “completing” one’s own “building” as an integral system of scientific knowledge; 2) developing practical recommendations that are so necessary for practice.

During the formation of social psychology, discussions were held on its subject. The famous physiologist V.M. Bekhterev (beginning of the 20th century) came up with a proposal to create the science of reflexology.

He called it collective reflexology, the subject of which is the behavior of people, groups, and relationships between people. G. I. Chelpanov, P. P. Blonsky and others expressed their ideas about the subject of social psychology.

The result of discussions regarding the subject of social psychology was the fact that the rights of citizenship received the point of view that social psychology is the doctrine of the social determination of the psyche. In the development of this idea, the most important role belongs to L. S. Vygotsky. L. S. Vygotsky’s teaching on higher mental functions largely fulfilled the task of identifying the social determination of the psyche. In his research, L. S. Vygotsky came to the conclusion that in order to understand the essence of higher mental functions (thinking, memory, attention, etc.), it is necessary to go beyond the boundaries of the body and look for their roots in the social conditions of life. He showed that the assimilation of social experience changes not only the content of mental life, but also creates new forms of mental processes that distinguish humans from animals. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the main mechanism of mental development is the mechanism of assimilation of socio-historical forms of activity. Thus, the ideas expressed by L. S. Vygotsky were a prerequisite for the formation of its variety within psychological science - social psychology.

In the second half of the 20th century, three approaches to understanding the issue of the subject of social psychology emerged.

The first approach, common among sociologists, understood social psychology as the science of “mass phenomena of the psyche,” including the study of the psychology of classes, collectives, and social consciousness. This approach represented social psychology as community psychology.

The second approach, common among psychologists, considered personality to be the main subject of social psychology.

The third approach to constructing the subject of social psychology is a synthesis of the first and second approaches. Social psychology is considered here as a science that studies mass mental phenomena and the position of the individual in a group.

The most representative idea about the subject of social psychology was the idea of B. D. Parygin, the author of socio-psychological theory. Within the framework of this theory, social psychology studies the social psychology of the individual, the social psychology of communities and communication, social relationships, and forms of spiritual activity.

Today, social psychology has acquired the status of an independent science, which has its own subject of research, including:

1) methodology, principles and methods of research;

2) patterns of communication and interaction between people;

3) problems of the group and team;

4) personality problems in groups and teams.

2.2. Socio-psychological phenomena

The central phenomenon in social psychology is the process of communication. The following socio-psychological phenomena are manifested in communication: perception, understanding, imitation, suggestion, persuasion, leadership, management, conflicts, cohesion, relationships, attitudes.

The communication process is considered at different levels: interpersonal, institutional-personal, officially formalized. Communication is studied as a specific phenomenon and as a means of increasing the efficiency of work and learning. In the process of communication, the socio-psychological structure of the individual, small groups and teams is formed.

Social psychology arose at the intersection of psychology and sociology, therefore it absorbs the achievements of these sciences.

At the same time, social psychology is primarily a branch of the system of psychological sciences and provides the interface between psychology and sociology, between the study of man and society.

The specificity and nature of socio-psychological phenomena can be understood through social determination at a fairly high level. At the first level, the social only corrects the natural and biological. At the second level, historical conditions are of a universal, socio-demographic nature. For example, continuity of generations, gender and age differences. At the third level of social determination - mode of production, base, superstructure - socio-economic and political conditions become the decisive reasons for the socialization of the individual.

The central link of social psychology is its conceptual apparatus (basic concepts), which expresses the structure of the individual, small groups and the mental states of mass phenomena.

Social psychology is developing as an experimental, theoretical and applied science. Experimental and theoretical research allows us to build a dispositional structure of personality. By correcting the basic dispositional structures of the personality (value orientations, attitudes, attitudes), one can actively influence the formation of personality. In the field of small groups and teams, such basic elements are: goals, organizational structure, dynamics. Studying and influencing them allows us to improve the dynamics and structure of a group or team, and increase the efficiency of their activities.

The phenomena of social psychology include group socio-psychological phenomena: goals, organizational structure and dynamics of groups and teams, features of value judgments of the group, processes of leadership and management, etc.

The phenomena also include: the dispositional structure of personality, relationships, value orientations, roles, people’s perception and understanding of each other. A special place among the phenomena is occupied by mass socio-psychological phenomena: class and national psychological characteristics, mores, customs, traditions, habits, imitation, suggestion, panic, rumors, crowds.

With all the diversity of socio-psychological phenomena, the main source of their occurrence is the sphere of communication between people. Socio-psychological phenomena arise as a reflection (cognition, experience, development) of various forms of communication, which depend on many factors. All factors of communication can be attributed to micro- and macroconditions, to direct and indirect influences, to the unity of form and content. It is obvious that each of us acquires all socio-psychological traits through our personal experience of communication. Only those events, people, works of art, scientific facts become the property of a person that deeply touched his experience and entered the sphere of his direct communication.

Through the microenvironment, through direct communication and contacts, each of us learns and communicates with the world, experiences the influence of the macroenvironment and indirect influences. The macroenvironment, indirect influence, is the dominant system of society with its own science, ideology, culture, norms, and regulations. The line on which the micro- and macro-environment interact is nothing more than a group, a collective. Through the microenvironment and its characteristics, each of us masters the macroenvironment: the experience and knowledge of previous people and the modern generation. This process of interaction does not go directly from society to the individual, but each time through the immediate circle of communication, through the experience acquired by the individual. The study of how this refraction and transformation of social phenomena occurs through human experience, its microenvironment, forms the basis of social psychology.

The microenvironment has a particularly significant influence on children, shaping their attitudes, value orientations, and norms of behavior. The influence of the microenvironment is understood not only in a literal and direct form, when real contact occurs, but also through deposited or established attitudes of the individual, which each time mediate any external influences and influences. Therefore, socio-psychological phenomena are presented as a unity of micro- and macro-conditions. In the attitudes of an individual, in group processes, it is always possible to identify what comes from microconditions and what from macroconditions. Exaggeration of one of these aspects of socio-psychological phenomena leads to serious mistakes. The separation of microconditions from macroconditions leads to idealism, which is characteristic of foreign researchers. Reducing socio-psychological phenomena to macro conditions leads to the abolition of social psychology and its dissolution in sociology.

Psychological phenomena in the crowd, in the audience, in the field of mass communication are also the result of the interaction of direct and indirect influences. For an ideological worker, the political level, content and direction of phenomena and on what basis they arise are important. For a social psychologist, it is important to establish the extent to which the consciousness of an individual, a group, and the direct forms of communication and communication of people change under the influence of the crowd, mass spectacles, rumors, etc. These mass phenomena again act as macroconditions that influence the individual through attitudes and features of his microenvironment.

2.3. Laws of social psychology

The purpose of social psychology is to describe, study phenomena and clarify the laws that underlie them. Laws express a stable and necessary connection, repeatability of phenomena at the level of the individual, small and large groups. Thus, the phenomenon of suggestion is widespread in public life. Numerous studies have found that suggestibility increases significantly as the group increases. A significant shift in suggestibility depending on the increase in the number of people in the group expresses a pattern, i.e., a stable connection between the increase in suggestibility and the size of the group. Conformism, expressed in the pressure of group opinion on an individual, is considered a widespread phenomenon in society. The manifestation of conformity depends on the number of participants, their age, gender, and profession. This second socio-psychological pattern is used by some people for their own purposes.

People’s perception and understanding of each other (A. A. Bodalev) is a fairly widely studied phenomenon. The dependence of a person’s perception of a person on age, profession, education, and on the relationship between them develops into a pattern. The inertia of the first impression, the influence of the hallo-effect (reputation) on perception are stable dependencies, laws.

In the relationships between people and in the phenomena of social psychology, features and laws of a general psychological order may appear. Thus, characteristics of temperament, mobility or inertia of the nervous system affect the manifestation of sociability. Mobile people have a wider circle of contacts, greater activity and expressiveness in the communication process, ease of making acquaintances, etc.

It is also known that all mental processes, states and properties have natural changes depending on whether a person works in isolated conditions or in a group.

Socio-psychological phenomena and laws are revealed in the historical and ontogenetic development of man, in the process of his work, communication, and cognition. The historical and ontogenetic action of the phenomena and laws of social psychology has much in common and has its own specifics. The commonality in the historical and ontogenetic action of the phenomena and laws of social psychology lies in the decisive and determining role of macroconditions and the social and labor activity of people.

The direct process of communication between people is predetermined by many factors: the entire system of socio-economic and ideological life of the country, the level of development of culture and science, and the development of mass media. Both in history and in ontogenesis, basically the same socio-psychological forms, methods and means of communication operate: speech, various expressive movements, imitation, suggestion, persuasion. These forms change in history and ontogenesis in their content, in their role and place in the process of communication.

Thus, it has been established that at the first stages of socioanthropogenesis and otnogenesis, imitation in the process of communication plays a significant role than in subsequent history and at a more mature age. It has also been shown that the influence of suggestion and authority is significantly greater in early historical periods and at a young age. This pattern was used by people in ancient times and is still used today.

The process of mastering customs, manners, rituals, habits and laws in the socio-psychological sense in history and ontogenesis is approximately general in nature. All of them require long-term exposure and are absorbed in finished form, and are characterized by different levels of group pressure. Moving from customs to mores and laws, we experience increasing group influence, which can rely on the authority of parents, teachers, elders, and government officials.

Both in history and in ontogenesis, macroconditions determine the nature of direct communication and all those norms, views, attitudes that develop in an individual. However, this impact does not occur by itself, not spontaneously. In the earliest period of his life, a person (child) finds himself in an established and familiar system of education and upbringing. It is important to emphasize that macro conditions and indirect relationships break into the individual’s consciousness and into his direct communication only through other people.

There are also differences in the existence of socio-psychological phenomena and laws in history and ontogenesis. If in history the basis and source of everything is social and labor activity, then in the course of ontogenetic development the sequence and significance of activities changes: in childhood the leading place is occupied by play, then by learning and work. So, social psychology is at the intersection of psychology and sociology. One group of phenomena studied by social psychology gravitates towards general psychology (communicative features of speech, expressive means of communication, perception of people). Another group of phenomena gravitates towards sociological phenomena (class and national types of consciousness, mores, customs, values). There are also groups of peculiar phenomena: value judgments in a group, structure and dynamics of groups, conformism, etc.

Phenomena and laws arise from the connection of man and his consciousness with society, refracted through direct communication between man and man. These patterns manifest themselves at the level of the individual, small groups and teams, and in mass processes.

2.4. Specifics of scientific research in social psychology

There are a number of problems in organizing social and psychological research.

The first is the problem of empirical data. Data in social psychology can be either data about the open behavior of individuals in groups, or data characterizing some elements of their consciousness, or the psychological characteristics of the group as a whole. In behavioral psychology, only facts of overt behavior are taken as data. Cognitivism focuses on data that characterizes only the cognitive world of the individual: images, values, attitudes. In Russian social psychology, research data can be represented by both of these types.

Along with the problem of data, another problem arises - what should be its volume? In this regard, two types of data are distinguished: 1) correlational, based on a large array of data; 2) experimental, when the researcher works with a limited amount of data.

The second problem of scientific research is the integration of data into principles, the construction of hypotheses and theories. In socio-psychological theories there is no rigor of the same order as, for example, in the theories of mathematics and logic. The hypothesis occupies a particularly important place in the study. It “represents” a form of knowledge in socio-psychological research. Hence, an important link in research is the formulation of a hypothesis. A good hypothesis in a study is not a sufficient level of inclusion of theory in research practice. The first level of generalizations obtained on the basis of testing a hypothesis and on the basis of its confirmation is only the most primary form of “organization” of data. The next step is the transition to higher-level generalizations, to theoretical generalizations.

The third problem of scientific research is the mandatory testability of hypotheses and the construction of reasonable predictions on this basis. Without testing hypotheses, research is meaningless.

The next, fourth problem of the study is obtaining reliable information. In general, this problem is solved by ensuring the principle of representativeness, as well as by checking the methods of obtaining data for reliability.

The reliability of information is achieved by checking the instrument (questionnaire, questionnaire, etc.) for reliability. Three characteristics of reliability are provided: validity (validity), stability, accuracy.

Validity (validity) is the ability of an instrument to measure exactly those characteristics of an object that need to be measured.

The stability of information is its quality of being unambiguous, i.e., when received in different situations, it must be identical.

The accuracy of the information is measured by how fractional the metrics used are and how sensitive the tool is.

2.5. Research methods in social psychology

Observation method

is one of the “old” and at the same time one of the main methods used in almost every study. This method plays a major role in obtaining data regarding the behavior of an individual under various conditions. The main problem of the researcher is how to ensure recording of the observed characteristics and further processing of the obtained material. The question here is: what to observe? how to record what is observed? It is necessary to identify certain classes, for example, individual interactions in a group, with subsequent recording of the number and frequency of manifestation of these interactions. This is essentially a question of units of observation. Another issue is the time interval that can be considered sufficient to capture units of observation.

Method of studying documents

allows you to analyze the products of activity. Here the problem arises that the documents are interpreted by a person - a researcher with inherent individual psychological characteristics. An important role here is played by the researcher’s ability to understand the text. And as a result, subjectivity is possible. To overcome it, a special technique is introduced - content analysis (content analysis). Special units are identified in the text, and then the frequency of their occurrence is calculated. This method is used when processing large materials.

Survey method

. A very common way to obtain information. Critics of this method are perplexed about how reliable information can be obtained from the direct responses of subjects, their self-reports. Accusations of this kind are based either on misunderstandings or on absolute incompetence in the field of polling. Among the many types of surveys, interviews and questionnaires are the most widespread. The main problem here is the design of the questionnaire. There are numerous rules for constructing each question, arranging them, grouping them into certain blocks, etc.

Another problem that arises when conducting surveys is the problem of using this method when working with people, since here there is interaction between the researcher and the respondent. During the interview, all the ways described in social psychology of influencing one person on another are revealed. As a result, the information received may be biased and may not reflect the essence of the matter.

Test Method

. This method is widely used in various fields of psychology. In social psychology, these are most often personality tests. A test is a special kind of test during which the subject performs a specially designed task or answers questions that differ from questionnaires and questionnaires. The questions are indirect. The point of subsequent processing is to use the “key” to correlate the responses received with certain personal parameters. The MMPI and R. Cattell tests have become widespread.

In social psychology, tests are used as auxiliary research tools. The data obtained must be compared with data obtained using other methods.

Experimental method

borrowed from general psychology. There are two types of experiments: laboratory and natural. The general rule for them is that the experimenter randomly introduces independent variables and controls them, as well as changes in the dependent variables. What is also common is the identification of control and experimental groups.

Sociometry method

allows you to determine the position of the subject in the system of interpersonal relations of the group to which he belongs. Group research using this technique is usually carried out when the group includes at least 10 people and has existed for at least a year. This method is widely represented in the socio-psychological literature (R. S. Nemov, 1995, etc.).

Self-test questions

1. The place of social psychology in the system of psychological sciences.

2. The relationship of social psychology with other sciences.

3. Laws of social psychology and their application.

4. Methodology of social psychology.

5. Research methods in social psychology.

Assignment for independent work

Create a questionnaire to identify the nature of relationships in a sports team.

Literature

1. Andreeva G. M. Social psychology. – M., 2006.

2. Babushkin G. D. Social psychology. – Omsk; Tara, 2000.

3. Enikeev M.I. General and social psychology. – M., 2005.

4. Andrienko E. V. Social psychology. – M, 2000.

5. Myers D. Social psychology. M.; St. Petersburg, 2003.

6. Kamenskaya E. N. Social psychology: lecture notes. – Rostov-on-Don, 2008.

7. Krysko V. G. Social psychology. Schemes and comments. – M., 2001.

8. Parygin B. D. Fundamentals of socio-psychological theory. – M., 1971.

9. Rudensky E. R. Social psychology. – M., 2000.

10. Social psychology / ed. A. L. Zhuravleva. – M., 2002.

11. Sukhov A. M. Social psychology. – M., 2006.

Some laws of social psychology

But in order for you to now begin to implement the acquired knowledge into your life, without engaging in in-depth study of specialized materials, you should know several important laws and patterns of social psychology that influence a person’s life in society and his interaction with this society and others. people.

People always perceive those around them in one way or another.

We usually attribute certain properties to the people we come into contact with, which relate to social stereotypes. Stereotypes can be attributed to people on anthropological grounds, that is, based on the characteristics of the race to which the person belongs. There are also social stereotypes - these are images attributed to people occupying certain positions, having different statuses, etc. Stereotypes can also be emotional, i.e. associated with the physiological properties of people.

Therefore, when communicating with different people, you must understand that your perception of them may be subconsciously based on stereotypes. So, for example, a beautiful person may turn out to be someone with whom it is better not to mess with, while an unattractive person in appearance may amaze you with the beauty and depth of his soul. If you are prejudiced against people of a certain race, this does not mean that they are what you think they are. After all, people of any skin color, gender, religion, worldview can be both good and bad. It is important to learn to perceive people not based on stereotypes, but only on personal experience. As they say, don’t judge by your clothes, but judge by your mind.

People easily assume social roles imposed on them.

A person who is in constant interaction with society builds his behavior according to the social role assigned to him by this society. This can be easily seen in the example of a person who has suddenly been promoted: he becomes very important, serious, communicates with people from above, those who yesterday were on an equal footing with him are no longer a match for him today, etc. Social roles imposed by society can make a person weak-willed and powerless to change anything. People who are affected by this influence can “sink” to the most vile actions (even murder) or raise themselves to heights.

We must always remember that social roles imposed by society have a strong influence on a person. In order to be able not to “bend” under the pressure of a social role and remain yourself, you need to be a strong personality, have an inner core, have beliefs, values and principles.

The best communicator is the one who knows how to listen.

Conversation is an integral part of human communication. When we meet other people, we start a conversation: about how someone is doing, about news, about changes, interesting events. The conversation can be friendly, business, intimate, formal or non-binding. But many people, if you pay attention to this, like to talk much more than listen. In almost every company there is a person who constantly interrupts, wants to speak out, insert his word, but does not listen to anyone. Agree, this is not very pleasant. But this is a pronounced need for conversation. In other people it may be less pronounced, but, in any case, it always exists.

If a person is given the opportunity to talk incessantly, then after saying goodbye to you, he will experience only the most pleasant emotions from communication. If you constantly talk, then he will most likely become bored, he will nod his head, yawn, and communicating with you will become an unbearable burden for him. A strong personality is a person who is able to control his emotions and desires. And the best interlocutor is the one who knows how to listen and not say a word, even if he really wants to. Take this into account and practice - you will see how pleasant it will be for people to communicate with you. In addition, it will train your self-control, self-discipline and attentiveness.

People's attitudes influence their perception of reality and those around them.

If a person has a predisposition to react to something in a certain way, then he will do it in accordance with it. For example, you must meet some person and you were told something very bad about him in advance. When you meet, you will experience acute hostility towards this person, reluctance to communicate, negativity and rejection, even if this person is actually very good. Anyone, even the same person, can appear before you in a completely different light if you are given a certain attitude towards their perception beforehand.

You shouldn’t take on faith everything you hear, see, or learn from someone else. The main thing is always to trust only personal experience and check everything yourself, taking into account, of course, everything that you have learned, but not based on it. Only personal experience will allow you to find out reliable information and make objective judgments about other people, events, situations, things, etc. In this case, the saying “Trust, but verify!” is ideal.

People's behavior is often influenced by how others perceive them.

In psychology this is called reflection. This is not common to everyone, of course, but to many. There are people who are entirely dependent on how others perceive them. An exaggerated sense of the importance of someone else’s opinion leads to the fact that a person begins to feel constant discomfort, emotional stress, dependence on another person, the inability to defend his position, express his opinion and many other rather unpleasant sensations. Moreover, these sensations can manifest themselves in different ways: from small mood swings during the day to prolonged and deep depression.

To avoid such situations, you need to understand that someone else’s opinion is just someone else’s opinion. It’s not for nothing that successful people say that someone else’s opinion will never feed you and your loved ones, buy you clothes, or bring you success and happiness. Quite the contrary, almost always someone else’s opinion makes people give up, stop striving for something, developing and growing. How others perceive you is their own business. You don't have to adapt to anyone and should always remain yourself.

People tend to judge others and justify themselves.

Situations in life are different, as are the people who find themselves in them. But the reactions evoked in people who find themselves in these situations can be perceived by us in completely different ways. For example, if you are standing in line to make a purchase and there is a person in front of you who has been buying something for a very long time, this causes negative emotions in you, you may begin to express dissatisfaction, rush the person in front, etc. At the same time, if for some reason you are delayed at the checkout, and the person standing behind you begins to reprimand you for something, you will begin to give completely reasonable arguments as to why you are standing for so long. And you'll be right. People find themselves in situations like this almost every day.

A significant advantage for you in terms of your development will be mastering the skill of critically assessing the situation and the people who find themselves in it (others and yourself). Whenever you feel that you are beginning to experience negative emotions, irritation, or a desire to express dissatisfaction towards another person due to some circumstances, abstract yourself for a while. Take a look at the situation from the outside, critically evaluate yourself and others, think about whether the other is to blame for the current situation and how you would behave and feel in his place. Most likely, you will notice that your reaction is not entirely correct and you should behave calmer, more tactfully, more consciously. If you do this practice systematically, life will become much more enjoyable, you will be less irritated, you will begin to experience more positive emotions, you will become more positive, etc.

People often identify with other people.

In social psychology this is called identification. Very often our identification with others occurs during our communication with someone: a person tells us some story or describes a situation in which he was a participant, but we subconsciously put ourselves in his place in order to feel what he felt. Identification can also occur while watching a movie, reading a book, etc. We identify with the main character or other participants. In this way, we dive deeper into the information we study (watch, read), understand the motives of people’s actions, and evaluate ourselves with them.

Identification can be done consciously. This helps a lot both in non-standard, difficult life situations, and in the process of ordinary life. For example, if in some situation you find it difficult to make the right decision, you don’t know what to do best, remember the hero of your favorite book, movie, person who is an authority for you, and think about what he would do in your place, what he said or did. A corresponding image will immediately appear in your imagination, which will lead you to the right decision.

People form their first impression of a person within the first five minutes.

This fact has long been proven by psychologists. We make our first impression of another person within the first 3-5 minutes of communication with him. Although first impressions can be deceiving, this point should be given special attention. When meeting a person for the first time, we look at his appearance, posture, behavior, speech, and emotional state. Also, the first impression is influenced by whether we feel that a person is superior to us in some respects, how attractive his appearance is, what attitude the person shows towards us. Other people form impressions of us using the same criteria.

You need to be able to make a first impression. And for this it is necessary to take into account all the above factors of its formation. Therefore, whenever you know that you are planning a first meeting with a person (an interview, a meeting in a friendly company, a date, etc.), you must prepare for this: look neat, behave confidently, be able to find something to say, observe manners decency and etiquette rules, speaking clearly, etc. Remember that the first impression is the foundation for building all future relationships.

A person attracts into his life what corresponds to his thoughts.

This is called variously: the law of attraction, “like attracts like” or “we are what we think.” The meaning is this: throughout a person’s life, he meets people and events happen that resonate with him: correspond to his thoughts, expectations, and beliefs. If a person radiates negativity, then more troubles happen in his life, he experiences failures, and meets bad people. If positive vibrations emanate from a person, then his life will be filled, for the most part, with good news, good events, and pleasant people.

Many successful people and spiritual personalities say that everything in life depends on how we think. Therefore, if you want your life to change for the better, more positive events to happen, good people to meet, etc., then, first of all, you must pay attention to your way of thinking. Rebuild it in the right way: from negative to positive, from the position of a victim to the position of a winner, from a feeling of failure to a feeling of success. Don't expect immediate changes, but try to be positive; after a while you will notice changes.

In a person's life, what he expects often happens.

You've probably noticed this pattern more than once: what you fear most happens with enviable regularity. But the point here is not at all that this is something bad, but how strong an emotional coloring you attach to it. If you constantly think about something, worry about it, expect something, then there is a high probability that it will happen. Any expectations you have can have an impact on the people around you. But negative emotions (fear, apprehension, apprehension), as is known, take hold of people’s consciousness to a much greater extent than positive ones. That's why what we don't want happens more often than what we want.

Reorganize yourself, stop thinking about what you fear and expecting it, start expecting only the best from life and those around you! But the main thing here is not to overdo it, so as not to feel disappointed. Create a habit for yourself to expect only good things, but do not idealize your expectations. Move away from negativity and tune into a positive mood, but always remain realistic and look at the world soberly.

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There are a lot of patterns that operate in communication between people, because psychology is a science that has a huge number of features. To make your life better, and to make communication with other people and interaction with society more pleasant and effective, you need to develop attentiveness to everything that happens around you: people’s behavior, their reactions, the reasons for certain situations and events. No theory will change you and your life on its own. Only the practical application of new knowledge, honing your communication skills and training your personal qualities can influence you and change what you want to change.

As for the person himself in social psychology, we can say with confidence that the person, as a mature personality, plays the main role here. It is social and psychological characteristics that allow such a science as social psychology to exist at all. And the knowledge about it that we now have, we want to deepen and strive to apply in practice, gives us the opportunity to identify, realize and understand the factors influencing the development of personality, the specifics of the interaction of people among themselves and in groups (as well as these groups). And this already allows us to make our lives, both as individuals and as parts of society, more comfortable and conscious, and the results of our actions and actions are better and more effective. It is for these reasons that we must master the basics of social (and not only) psychology and make their use part of our daily life.

Social Psychology

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies human behavior in society (society), mental phenomena that occur during the interaction of different groups of people. That is, it examines the patterns of behavior of people who are part of various groups, their thoughts about each other, how they influence each other, and how they relate to each other. This direction appeared in the middle of the 19th century. Before this, it was presented only as a social philosophy.

The uniqueness of this direction lies in the fact that it is located between sociology and psychology. It cannot be attributed to any of these areas. It is rather unifying. The fact is that psychology considers more intrapersonal aspects and social situations, while sociology considers extrapersonal and social processes that determine human behavior. The object of study of social psychology is both intrapersonal and extrapersonal aspects.

A person spends most of his life in society among other people, uniting with them in various groups: family, work team, friends, sports clubs, etc. At the same time, these groups interact with other groups of people, both small and large. Understanding how this interaction occurs is important for resolving family and national conflicts, in the system of people management, etc.

In this case, a group is understood as several people united by one action. For example, if people witnessed an accident and gathered to watch, then such a gathering of people is not considered a group. If they began to help the participants in the accident, then they formed a temporary group united by one action.

Groups provide satisfaction of certain needs of society as a whole and each of its members individually.

In this regard, social psychology divides groups into the following categories:

Primary groups (family), which a person comes to first, and secondary groups (work team), where a person comes after primary groups.
Large groups (nations, peoples) and small groups (family, friends).
Formal and informal. A formal structure is created to carry out official tasks. Informal connections arise spontaneously as individuals interact.

Groups perform 4 functions:

Socialization is the process of including an individual in a certain social environment and assimilating its norms and values. Thus, the family serves to acquire certain life skills in a social environment.
Instrumental - the implementation of one or another joint activity of people. Participation in such groups, as a rule, provides a person with material means of living and provides him with opportunities for self-realization.
Expressive - meeting people's needs for approval, respect and trust. This role is usually performed by primary informal groups.
Supportive - Bringing people together in groups during difficult situations. As experiments have shown, in the face of danger, people strive to get psychologically closer to each other.

The properties of groups are influenced by size and number. Some sociologists believe that a group begins with the union of 2 people, but a number of scientists argue that the minimum composition of a group is 3 people. This is due to the fragility of the dyad. In the triad, interaction already occurs in two directions, which makes the structure more durable. The maximum small group size is 10 people. As a rule, in social psychology the terms small group and primary group are equivalent.

The structure of a group depends on its goals, and is also influenced by socio-demographic, social and psychological factors. They can cause the group to break up into several smaller groups.

Social psychology pays a lot of attention to psychological compatibility in groups, since its members have to come into contact with each other. And here, clashes and misunderstandings are possible. It is also possible to create an entire group.

Scientists have identified 4 types of communicative behavior:

People who strive for leadership, trying to subordinate other people to accomplish a given task.
People who strive to complete a task alone.
People who adapt to the group and easily obey the orders of others.
Collectivists who strive to complete a given task through joint efforts.

Therefore, one of the important tasks is to build relationships between these groups of people in a team.

Social psychologists study the effectiveness of individual and group decision making. When developing group decisions, sociologists also noticed the division of people into 5 categories:

Individuals tend to talk more than others.
Individuals with high status have more influence on decisions than individuals with low status.
Groups often spend a significant proportion of their time resolving interpersonal differences.
Groups can lose sight of their purpose and end up with incongruous conclusions.
Group members often experience exceptionally strong pressure to conform.

Recently, sociologists have begun to pay much attention to issues of management and leadership, noting their differences. They identified 3 types of leadership:

Autocratic. The leader makes decisions alone, determining all the activities of his subordinates and not giving them the opportunity to take the initiative.
Democratic. The leader involves subordinates in the decision-making process based on group discussion, stimulating their activity and sharing with them all decision-making powers.
Free. The leader avoids any personal participation in decision making, giving subordinates complete freedom to make decisions on their own.

Thus, one can see the importance of scientific research in the field of social psychology, the importance of the practical use of this knowledge in people's everyday lives.

Literature

For those who have a desire to dive deeper into the study of the topic of social psychology, below we present a small but very good list of literature that makes sense to consult.

Ageev BC Intergroup interaction: socio-psychological problems. M., 1990
Andreeva G.M. Social psychology M., 2003
Bityanova M.R. Social psychology M., 2002
Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man M. Moscow State University, 1982
Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication M., 1995
Dontsov A.I. Psychology of the collective M., 1984
Leontyev A.A. Psychology of communication M., 1998
Kolomensky Ya.L. “Differentiation of social psychology and some problems of developmental psychology” St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000
Myasishchev V.N. Psychology of relations Moscow-Voronezh, 1995
Fundamentals of socio-psychological theory / Ed. A.A.Bodaleva, A.N. Sukhova M., 1995
Parygin B.D. Social psychology M., 1999
Personality psychology and lifestyle / Rep. ed. E.V. Shorokhova M. Science, 1987
Rean A.A., Kolomensky Ya.L. Social educational psychology St. Petersburg, 1998
Robert M., Tilman F. Psychology of the individual and group M., 1988
Sekun V.I. Psychology of activity. Minsk, 1996
Semenov V.E. Method of studying documents in socio-psychological research L., 1983
Modern foreign social psychology Texts / Ed. G.M.Andreeva et al. M., 1984
Social psychology / Ed. A.N. Sukhova, A.A. Derkach M., 2001
Social psychology and social practice / Ed. E.V. Shorokhova, V.P. Levkovich. M., 1985
Social psychology of classes / Ed. G.G.Diligensky M., 1985
Spivak D.L. Altered states of mass consciousness St. Petersburg, 1996
Stankin M.I. Psychology of communication Course of lectures M., 1996
Stefanenko T.G., Shlyagina E.I., Enikolopov S.N. Methods of ethnopsychological research. M., 1993
Stefanenko T.G. Ethnopsychology. Vol. 1. M., 1998
Sukharev V., Sukharev M. Psychology of peoples and nations. M., 1997
Freud 3. Group psychology and analysis of “EGO” M., 1991
Shevandrin N.I. Social psychology in education M., 1996
Shikhirev P.N. Modern social psychology in Western Europe M, 1985