Gestalt psychology: what is it in simple words, what does a psychologist do during therapy, what methods does he use, features of the psychological direction

The definition of “gestalt” in psychology comes from the German words “image”, “form”, “structure”. It means the integrity of perception or the balance of forces influencing the elements of the surrounding world. Gestalt psychology is based on the principle: unfinished business and unhappened events prevent a person from enjoying life.

Gestalt psychology and gestalt therapy

The concept of Gestalt psychology appeared around 1912, when Max Wertheimer described the phenomenon of the irreducibility of the perception of the whole to a collection of individual elements.

What is Gestalt? This term refers to the concept of a single whole, which is something different from the sum of its individual parts. What the two terms have in common is only the word gestalt. The founder of therapy, Perls, had a superficial understanding of Gestalt psychology, having mastered only part of the fundamental works devoted to this issue. He used some ideas, but nothing more.

Gestalt is a direction in psychology, and therapy contains only a small part of its elements. It is a mixture of psychodrama, analytics and bioenergetics.

Gestalt psychology - what is it in simple words? This is a scientific direction aimed at studying the characteristics of human perception. Several interesting features of the psyche were found experimentally, such as the laws of correlation and grouping of objects.

The basic principle of Gestalt psychology: the whole is not just the sum of its parts, but something more significant. A person perceives his surroundings holistically, that is, he does not see a collection of individual lines and points (a tree, and not a set of leaves, branches and a trunk).

Gestalt psychology

Do you see a vase or two faces?

Gestalt psychology (German gestalt - image, form) is a direction in Western psychology that arose in Germany in the first third of the twentieth century. and put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of holistic structures (gestalts), primary in relation to their components.

Representatives: Wolfgang Köhler, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Kurt Lewin

Gestalt psychology arose from studies of perception. Its focus is on the characteristic tendency of the psyche to organize experience into an understandable whole. For example, when perceiving letters with “holes” (missing parts), consciousness strives to fill the gap, and we recognize the whole letter.

Gestalt psychology opposed the principle put forward by structural psychology of dividing consciousness into elements and constructing them according to the laws of association or creative synthesis of complex mental phenomena. Representatives of Gestalt psychology emphasized that perception is not reduced to the sum of sensations, and the properties of a figure are not described through the properties of its parts. In the human mind, the parts come together into a whole and organize a gestalt.

The principle of closure. The drawing is perceived not as separate segments, but as a circle and a rectangle.

Gestalt (German Gestalt - form, image, structure) is the central concept of Gestalt psychology. Gestalt is the quality of form, a functional structure that organizes the diversity of individual phenomena. Gestalt is a spatially visual form of perceived objects whose essential properties cannot be understood by summing up the properties of their parts. One striking example of this, according to Köhler, is a melody that is recognizable even if it is transposed into other keys. When we hear a melody for the second time, we recognize it thanks to memory. But if its key changes, we will still recognize the melody as the same.

“If the similarity of two phenomena (or physiological processes) is due to the number of identical elements and is proportional to it, then we are dealing with sums. If there is no correlation between the number of identical elements and the degree of similarity, and the similarity is due to the functional structures of two integral phenomena as such, then we have a gestalt,” wrote Karl Duncker.

Representatives of Gestalt psychology suggested that all various manifestations of the psyche obey the laws of Gestalt. Parts tend to form a symmetrical whole, parts are grouped in the direction of maximum simplicity, proximity, balance. The tendency of every mental phenomenon is to assume a definite, complete form.

Having started with the study of perception processes, Gestalt psychology quickly expanded its topics to include problems of mental development, analysis of the intellectual behavior of great apes, consideration of memory, creative thinking, and the dynamics of individual needs.

Gestalt principles

The principle of proximity. The right side of the figure is perceived as three columns.

The principle of similarity. The drawing is perceived as lines, not as columns.

The integrity of perception and its orderliness are achieved thanks to the following principles:

proximity (stimuli located nearby tend to be perceived together),
similarity (stimuli that are similar in size, shape, color or shape tend to be perceived together),
integrity (perception tends towards simplification and integrity),
closedness (reflects the tendency to complete a figure so that it takes on a full form),
contiguity (proximity of stimuli in time and space. Contiguity can predetermine perception when one event causes another),
common area (Gestalt principles shape our everyday perceptions, as well as learning and past experiences. Anticipatory thoughts and expectations also actively guide our interpretation of sensations).

The psyche of humans and animals was understood by Gestalt psychologists as an integral “phenomenal field” that has certain properties and structure. According to Gestalt psychology, the main properties of perception are the law of constancy of perception and the figure/ground relationship.

A phenomenal field is a set of phenomena experienced by a subject at a given moment in time. A construct used in Gestalt psychology and other phenomenological areas of psychology. A phenomenon is a sensation, a perception, an idea, and a thought.

Figure and ground

You can change the figure and background, seeing here either a young woman or an old woman.

The main components of the phenomenal field are figure and ground. Part of what we perceive appears clearly and meaningfully, while the rest is only vaguely present in our consciousness. The first is the figure, the second is the background. Brain cells that receive visual information respond more actively when looking at a figure than when looking at a background (Lamme, 1995). The figure is always pushed forward, the background is pushed back, the figure is richer in content than the background, brighter than the background. And a person thinks about the figure, and not about the background. However, their role and place in perception is determined by personal and social factors. Therefore, the phenomenon of a reversible figure becomes possible when, for example, during prolonged perception, the figure and the background change places.

Constancy of perception

The law of constancy of perception says that the complete image does not change when its sensory elements change. You see the world as stable, despite the fact that your position in space, lighting, etc. are constantly changing.

Size constancy means that the perceived size of an object remains constant, regardless of changes in the size of its image on the retina. Understanding simple things may seem natural or innate. However, in most cases it is formed through one's own experience. So in 1961, Colin Turnbull took a pygmy who lived in the dense African jungle to the endless African savannah. The pygmy, who had never seen objects at a great distance, perceived herds of buffalo as a collection of insects until he was brought closer to the animals.

Shape constancy is that the perceived shape of an object is constant as the shape on the retina changes. Just look at this page first straight ahead and then at an angle. Despite the change in the “picture” of the page, the perception of its shape remains unchanged.

Brightness constancy means that the perceived brightness of an object is constant under changing lighting conditions. Naturally, provided that the object and background are the same.

Gestalt psychology and gestalt therapy

Gestalt therapy, developed by Fritz Perls, is not closely related to Gestalt psychology. If Gestalt psychology is an independent direction in academic psychology, then Gestalt therapy is a synthesis of psychoanalysis, bioenergetics, psychodrama and some ideas of Gestalt psychology. The indication that Gestalt therapy allegedly originated in the depths of Gestalt psychology, as stated in some sources, is just an advertising ploy. The Gestalt approach used the respected word "Gestalt" to give its name seriousness and solidity. The founders of Gestalt psychology reacted negatively to Perls’s approach and his interpretation of the concept of “Gestalt”.

Defense Mechanisms

The main Gestalt approach in psychology is understanding and respecting human defense mechanisms necessary for comfortable interaction with the outside world. They are required by the individual to interrupt traumatic contact and maintain his integrity.

Even at an early age, a person unconsciously creates defense mechanisms, considered in Gestalt psychology. They allow you to get out of a traumatic situation and interrupt contact with the environment. On the other hand, their appearance leads to the fact that the situation does not have its end, since the discomfort is poorly recognized and the traumatic events are repeated again.

What are defense mechanisms in gelstatt psychology? These are neurotic processes and behavioral characteristics that are unconsciously used by a person to interrupt painful contact. Experiences and painful feelings are a signal of an urgent need. However, the peculiarities of the human psyche are such that he often unconsciously resorts to self-manipulation and self-regulation.

Self-manipulation - what is it in Gestalt psychology? A method to stop identifying feelings and satisfying a specific need. Often a person is not able to navigate his experiences and concludes that his needs should be satisfied by others, or, on the contrary, he directs negative feelings towards himself and not into the external environment. This is what the defense mechanism looks like: avoidance occurs, interruption of contact with the environment.

The main defense mechanisms in Gestalt psychology are:

introjection is a state in which a person, without internal evaluation, allows into himself any attitudes or moral principles of other people, blindly accepting them on faith;
confluence (merging with someone) manifests itself in the fact that it is difficult for a person to distinguish himself from others or to highlight his main experience. In this case, the pronoun “we” will constantly appear in the subject’s speech;
egotism is an exaggeration of the ego, when the subject closes himself in and cannot allow himself to be completely dissolved in what is happening (man in a case);
projection is when a person attributes to other objects something characteristic of his inner world;
retroflection is when a person addresses to himself what was intended for the environment (reverse projection).

Gestalt therapy is carried out over a long period of time and carefully, under the guidance of an experienced specialist. A person with psychological problems, even in childhood, gets used to existing within a certain emotional framework (a tunnel of defense mechanisms) and a forced withdrawal beyond this limitation can be complicated by psychosomatic diseases or even decompensations. It will be better if intense experiences and “passions” enter the client’s life gradually.

Research by Wolfgang Keller

Wolfgang Keller - German and American psychologist, one of the founders of Gestalt psychology, dealt with the problems of general, comparative, experimental psychology. Introduced the principle of isomorphism (equality of forms in the physical, physiological and phenomenal fields).

V. Keller studied problem solving by apes. Experiments with chimpanzees allowed him to understand that the task assigned to an animal is solved either by trial and error (blindly searching for the right solution) or through sudden awareness.

Köhler's experiments proved that the thought process follows the second path, i.e. there is an instant grasp of the situation and the correct solution to the task.

Köhler came to the conclusion that objects and objects that are in the field of perception and are in no way connected with each other, in the process of solving a problem, begin to unite into a single structure, the vision of which helps to solve the problem. This process happens instantly. V. Koehler called this phenomenon insight.

Insight is inner illumination, sudden understanding and finding a solution.

Explaining the phenomenon of insight, he believed that the moment phenomena enter another situation, they acquire a new function. The combination of objects in new combinations associated with their new functions leads to the formation of a new gestalt, the awareness of which is the essence of thinking.

Köhler conducted a series of experiments with children to study thinking in order to prove that humans solve certain problems in a similar way. He offered the children a problem situation similar to the one put before the monkeys (for example, getting a typewriter that was located on a cabinet). To get the typewriter, the children included various objects in the gestalt with the closet (a ladder or other objects: drawers, a table with a chair).

Gestalt therapy: techniques, what Gestalt therapy teaches

The leading methods of therapy are role-playing games. These practices help the client find a solution to the problem and find a way out of a deadlock. F. Perls has found an effective technique that allows you to free yourself from negativity and find a solution to the problem. It's called "empty chair". The person is asked to imagine that a specific person is sitting on him. It is easier for an imaginary interlocutor to “express” complaints and free himself from psychological burden.

A frequently used technique in Gestalt therapy is dream analysis. It is believed that the technique allows you to determine the individual characteristics of the client, as well as restore in memory any traumatic situations from the past. A person is asked to keep a diary for 2 weeks in which to record dreams. Then you need to choose the brightest one and play it in the presence of a specialist. It is expected that this will help reconnect with episodes of the past that the client previously refused to acknowledge.

A well-known Gestalt method is pillow beating, which releases unspoken anger. The client imagines an object that causes him aggression and beats him, getting rid of pent-up anger.

The following Gestalt technique helps to increase awareness:

The client says out loud a phrase that clearly defines his self, for example:

I realize that I am in this room and sitting on a chair;
I realize that I am currently feeling sad.

In this way, the subject separates his internal sensations from subjective assessments and interpretations. This simple and very common technique helps to create an image of how the patient is aware of himself.

Unfinished Gestalt

The founder of Gestalt therapy, F. Perls, identified the main reason for the internal feeling of dissatisfaction with life (in other words, lack of happiness). In his opinion, the factor creating neurosis is not a closed gestalt. To complete it, it is necessary to achieve an indifferent attitude towards it. The more negative the client feels about the situation, the more difficult it is to achieve closure of the gestalt.

What is an incomplete gestalt in psychology? This is an unachieved goal that provokes a repetition of life situations and connects the client with certain people. In other words, this is:

unfulfilled desires;
unfinished business and plans;
an unexpected and painful break in personal relationships.

Any episode from life that periodically emerges in memory and at the same time causes strong negative experiences is an incomplete gestalt.

You should get rid of it for two reasons:

The situation causes internal tension, anxiety and discomfort. Creates life dissatisfaction and decreased self-esteem.
It becomes a serious obstacle to achieving other goals. A person feels unsure of his abilities.

Often such people cannot establish contacts with others, exhausting them with constant excursions into the past and complaints about dissatisfaction with life. In this case, conscious actions upon completion of the gestalt will help. Psychologists recommend realizing the most simple and even ridiculous dream, the achievement of which will not take much effort and time. For example, you can learn to cook some exotic dish, dance the waltz or swim breaststroke. It has been noticed that after this the remaining, more important gestalts will begin to close.

What is Gestalt?

Gestalt (from German gestalt - “whole image”) is a certain entity consisting of several parts, but perceived by a person as single and indivisible. For our psyche, the role of a gestalt is most often played by a sequence of actions, having started which we feel the need to complete it.

We need the integrity of images. Although in most cases this need seems irrational, it was formed in the course of evolution. Our brain is more comfortable working with a whole image than with many small details. Thanks to this feature, we immediately recognize familiar faces without looking at the nose and eyebrows, and instantly recognize any household object without trying to analyze its shape.

Gestalt is also a powerful mechanism that allows you to keep unfinished things in your memory (and motivates you to complete them). For example, you can make a list of things you need to buy throughout the day. Coffee, sugar, napkins... Even without resorting to mnemonics and without writing the list in a notebook, you can easily remember a dozen items and keep them in your memory even the next day. But try to remember this list an hour after going to the store, and you will find that you have forgotten half of the items.

Gestalt helps us remember important things and forget them almost immediately when the job is done. And each of us constantly uses this feature of the psyche, without thinking at all. But sometimes it fails, and some irrelevant things turn into unclosed gestalts. Sometimes these are really unpleasant and painful situations, and sometimes they are completely ordinary things, next to which we simply forgot to mentally check the “Done!” box.

Projection and introjection in Gestalt therapy

To increase awareness, psychologists teach clients to work with two main defense mechanisms - projection and introjection:

Projection is a feature of the psyche when a person tends to attribute to living and inanimate objects properties inherent in his own inner world. Man by nature tends to anticipate events, relying on his negative experience. In the client’s speech this is manifested by an abundance of pronouns “they” and “you”. A person is unable to recognize anger or hostility in himself, complains about others, projecting his emotions onto them: “they don’t like me,” “you don’t value me.”
The state when a person transfers to others qualities or emotions that he himself possesses or would like to have is called mirror projection. Often this situation does not allow the individual to recognize his valuable traits or qualities, attributing them to strangers, and considering himself unworthy of possession.
The situation when a person transfers to others properties or emotions that he does not want to recognize in himself is called the projection of catharsis.
There is also an additional projection when an individual gives others far-fetched properties, attitudes, emotions that somehow justify his own unsightly qualities.
The mechanism by which a person internalizes other people's ideas or principles without critical evaluation and reflection is called introjection. The speaker conveys such things in a peremptory tone. For example: “elders must be respected,” “being late is rude,” “it is unacceptable to hurt a person.”

As children develop, they learn behavioral patterns, attitudes, ideas about others, beliefs, and ways of interacting with people. They perceive them without understanding responsibility and project them into their lives, receiving feedback. A healthy adult attitude is to see the world clearly, be aware of one's projections, and show responsibility and empathy for others. During therapy, the therapist helps the client gain awareness and take responsibility for life events.

Who can benefit from Gestalt psychology and therapy?

Gestalt therapy has the widest range of application, which is much larger than that of other areas of psychology. Individual, family and group therapy, work with childhood clients, seminars, etc. are possible. This type of therapy is used in private and public medical institutions, as well as personal growth centers.

What is Gestalt psychology and who is it recommended for? This area of psychology is of interest to clients working to expand self-awareness, develop responsibility, and self-improvement.

Gestalt therapy is applicable to working with groups of people of different ages and clients with severe psychological disorders. The method is most effective in treating clients with phobias and depression, violation of internal restrictions, increased anxiety and a tendency toward perfectionism.

The therapy is also successfully used in the elimination of psychosomatic diseases, for example, gastrointestinal dysfunction, migraine headaches, spasms of the back and neck muscles. Gestalt therapists also work with couples to resolve psychological conflicts. Sessions can help with some mental disorders and severe emotional disorders.