How intelligence works (a unified algorithm for discrimination and generalization)

Introduction

Modern science conventionally divides all mental phenomena into three groups: mental properties, mental states and mental processes [4]. These groups of mental phenomena differ from each other, first of all, in their duration and stability in a person’s mental life. Mental processes function directly at a given current moment in time, mental properties are the most stable psychological characteristics of a person, and mental states are short-term and occupy an intermediate position between mental processes and mental properties.

Mental properties are the most stable psychological characteristics that make up the characteristics of a person’s personality [4]. These, according to classical concepts in Russian psychology, include orientation, character, temperament and abilities. The level of development of these properties, as well as the peculiarities of the development of mental processes and the prevailing mental states determine the uniqueness of a person’s psychological make-up, his individuality.

Abilities are individual properties of a person that determine the success of a person in performing any activity [2]. Abilities determine the ease and speed of formation of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to perform an activity, and can manifest themselves despite unfavorable circumstances. Abilities, as a rule, appear in early ontogenesis, but can also be revealed in adulthood.

Abilities arise and develop on the basis of inclinations - biologically determined anatomical and functional characteristics of the human body (structure and functioning of the brain, sensory organs and motor organs). However, in order to develop abilities, in addition to inclinations, certain conditions of training and education are necessary.

There are general and special abilities [2; 4]. General abilities are abilities on which the success of any type of activity depends; Special abilities are abilities on which the success of a specific type of activity depends.

There are as many varieties of special abilities as there are types of human activity, and general abilities include the following [2; 4]:

• Learning ability – the ability to learn new things (acquire knowledge);
• Intelligence – the ability to apply what has been learned;
• Creativity is the ability to transform old and discover new knowledge.

However, to date, scientists have not come to a unified concept of intelligence, and there are many different approaches and points of view on the essence of this term: “The term “intelligence,” in addition to its scientific meaning (which each theorist has its own), like an old cruiser with shells, has become overgrown with endless the number of everyday and popular interpretations. A review of the works of authors who to one degree or another dealt with this subject would take hundreds of pages” [2, p. 16].

For this work, the purpose of which is not a deep theoretical analysis of the concept of “intelligence,” it is enough to limit ourselves to the definition of this term, based on the above-described scheme of ideas about mental phenomena and proposed by the famous domestic psychologist, author of the textbook “Psychology of General Abilities,” V.N. Druzhini -nym [2]: intelligence is an individual personality property, which represents a person’s general ability to apply acquired knowledge in practice.

Intelligence Research

tags:

Intelligence, Age, Development, Child, Memory, Level, Task, Thinking

Introduction.

The task of establishing the level of intelligence has been one of the most important in psychology since the formation of this science.
It was the intellectual indicator of a person that made it possible to characterize his mental and moral qualities. The establishment of quantitative and qualitative dependencies of these indicators on the level of intelligence development made it possible to develop various methods for studying intelligence and related qualities. The assessment of intelligence as a specific human activity gave rise to methods similar to the Eysenck test. The establishment of its structure has given rise to a huge number of tests examining various aspects. This is how tests of logical, imaginative, creative and technical thinking appeared. Professional aptitude tests also turned out to be closely related to the level of intelligence. Moreover, to obtain a position as a US government employee, the applicant must show an IQ level of at least 100, and certification for a professional qualification category requires, in addition to demonstrating production skills, passing a whole set of similar tests. The educational program of schools in the USA and other developed European countries includes the use of intelligence testing techniques as an evaluative, stimulating tool that causes additional motivational changes. Thus, an indicator of intelligence (not necessarily IQ) has become one of the most important indicators of human suitability for a particular activity, and ultimately the usefulness of a person as such.

It is necessary to distinguish between tests of intelligence development and tests of intelligence as such. The first, as a rule, includes questions of an educational nature, standardized tasks with a rigid structure. This group of techniques is designed to assess a person’s education, the speed and quality of his thinking, reaction speed and ability to switch from one type of activity to another. A person is tested only as a performer, tested on a standard scale without being able to stand out from the general scheme. The methods of the second group do not have this drawback; they determine the prevailing type of thinking, the methodology for finding a solution to the problem, non-standard approach, creative abilities, and the ability to operate with concepts. Such methods are never rigidly established; they are compiled on the basis of creative tests, tests of an intuitive nature, where not the speed, but the manner of solving a particular problem, the level of conceptual connections, non-standard thinking, and the effectiveness of the approach are assessed. However, such tests are not suitable for mass testing due to their purely individual nature, the complexity of the assessment and the large amount of time spent processing the result. In the generally accepted understanding, intelligence testing comes down to solving one or a series of tests that assess a person’s general educational level, that is, tests of the first group. This is due to the dual application and interpretation of intelligence. In the broadest sense, intelligence is both a separate structure of the human brain and a psychological process occurring in it, hence the ambiguous assessment of the results of this process. However, the task of psychology is set very narrowly and to solve it, an academic definition of this term is sufficient.

5 pages, 2479 words

The concept of “intelligence”, the substantive differences between the concepts of “thinking”...

... and a powerful way of activity - the transformation of the environment, the production of one’s own existence, characteristic of man as the highest form of matter. Chapter 1. Correlation of the concepts of “thinking” and “intelligence”, Thinking and intelligence -, A person endowed with intelligence is capable of carrying out thinking processes: intelligence is the ability to think; thinking...

What is intelligence?

Intelligence (from Latin - Intellectus) in a broad sense is the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual: from sensation and perception to thinking and imagination; in a narrower sense, it is thinking.

Intelligence is the main form of knowledge of reality.

There are three varieties in understanding the function of intelligence: 1) the ability to learn, 2) operating with symbols, 3) the ability to actively master the laws of the reality around us.

The term intelligence is often used to emphasize the specificity of human psychological activity. It should not be overlooked that the ability to deal with abstract symbols and relationships is only one side of the intellect; No less important is such an aspect as concrete thinking. Intelligence is often interpreted as the ability to adapt to new situations using previously acquired experience. In this case, intelligence is actually identified with the ability to learn. However, one cannot ignore the fact that intelligence contains a productive principle. The most essential thing for human intelligence is that it allows one to reflect the natural connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, thereby making it possible to creatively transform reality.

How is intelligence studied?

Intelligence research methods are roughly divided into: experimental, survey and creative (intuitive).

The first ones give the fastest and clearest results.

The latter allow a series of data that correlate with each other, but are a little more difficult to process.

The third type is placed in a special class; it is the most informative, but presents significant difficulties in processing the result and its interpretation; moreover, the results obtained using this group of techniques are not always clearly related to similar results from another group.

Below we will use examples from the first and second groups. To avoid ambiguous interpretations and extensive theoretical justification.

Preschool age.

During the transition from early to preschool age, i.e., in the period from 3 to 7 years, under the influence of productive, design and artistic activities, the child develops complex types of perceptual analytic-synthetic activity. Perceptual images related to the shape of objects also acquire new content. In addition to the outline, the structure of objects, spatial features and relationships of its parts are also highlighted.

6 pages, 2517 words

Intelligence is thinking, the highest cognitive process.

... genesis from “action to thought”, the discovery of the phenomena of children's thinking and the development of methods for its research. ^ Definition of intelligence Intelligence is a global cognitive system consisting of a number of... At the stage of concrete operations (from 8 to 11 years), various types of mental activity that arose during the previous period finally reach a state of “fluid equilibrium”, i.e....

Perceptual actions are also formed in learning, and their development goes through a number of stages. In the first stage, the formation process begins with practical, material actions performed with unfamiliar objects.

At the second stage, the sensory processes themselves, restructured under the influence of practical activity, become perceptual actions. These actions are now carried out with the help of appropriate movements of the receptor apparatus and anticipating the implementation of practical actions with perceived objects.

At the third stage, perceptual actions become more hidden, collapsed, reduced, their external, effector links disappear, and perception from the outside begins to seem like a passive process. In fact, this process is still active, but occurs internally, mainly only in the consciousness and on a subconscious level in the child.

Along with the development of perception in preschool age, there is a process of improving attention. A characteristic feature of the attention of a preschool child is that it is caused by externally attractive objects, events and people and remains focused as long as the child retains a direct interest in the perceived objects. Attention at this age, as a rule, rarely arises under the influence of an internally set task or reflection, i.e., in fact, it is not voluntary. It can be assumed that internally regulated perception and active speech proficiency are associated with the beginning of the formation of voluntary attention.

The development of memory in preschool age is characterized by a gradual transition from involuntary and immediate to voluntary and indirect memorization and recollection. Voluntary reproduction occurs earlier than involuntary memorization, and in its development seems to overtake it.

It is believed that with age, the speed at which information is retrieved from long-term memory and transferred to working memory increases, as well as the volume and duration of working memory increases. Most normally developing children of primary and secondary school age have well-developed immediate and mechanical memory.

In the first half of preschool age, the child’s reproductive imagination predominates, mechanically reproducing received impressions in the form of images. In older preschool age, when arbitrariness in memorization appears, the imagination turns from reproductive, mechanically reproducing reality into creatively transforming it. It connects with thinking and is included in the process of planning action.

Just like perception, memory and attention, imagination from involuntary becomes voluntary, gradually turns from direct to mediated, and the main tool for mastering it on the part of the child is sensory standards.

At preschool age, children begin to play so-called role-playing games, which greatly stimulate the development of imagination, primarily visual and figurative. Its formation depends on the development of the child’s imagination. The main lines of development of thinking in preschool age can be outlined as follows: further improvement of visual and effective thinking on the basis of the developing imagination; improvement of visual-figurative thinking based on voluntary and indirect memory; the beginning of the active formation of verbal-logical thinking through the use of speech as a means of setting and solving intellectual problems.

14 pages, 6687 words

Determining the level of development of visual forms of thinking in children 6-7 ...

...with reality, direct knowledge of the environment, the child’s thinking develops. Through thinking, we gain knowledge that the organs cannot provide... in all aspects of our lives. Any activity, regardless of a person’s age or social status, is inseparable from mental work. In... 5. Methodology “4 extra” 6. Methodology “Patches” 3. Conclusion a. Closing conversation...

Method 1.

“Cut out the shapes”

This technique is intended to assess visual and effective thinking. The task is to cut out the figures drawn on it from paper as quickly and accurately as possible.

Method 2.

“Reproduce the pictures”

The task of this technique is to reproduce pictures in special empty squares that depict figures in the same squares. Five minutes are allotted to complete the task.

Method 3.

“Divide into groups”

The purpose of this technique is to assess the child’s figurative and logical thinking. He is shown a picture that shows squares, rhombuses, triangles and circles of different colors. The child is asked to divide the presented figures into as many groups as possible. Three minutes are given to complete the task.

Method 4.

“Who lacks what?”

Before starting the task, it is explained to the child that he will be shown a drawing depicting children, each of whom is missing something. What is missing is shown separately.

The task given to the child is to quickly determine who is missing what.

Method 5.

“What’s missing here?”

This technique is intended for children from 4 to 5 years old. It is designed to explore the processes of figurative and logical thinking, mental operations of analysis and generalization in a child. In this technique, children are presented with a series of pictures in which different objects are presented, with one of them being redundant.

Junior school age.

At primary school age, only those basic human characteristics of cognitive processes (perception, attention, memory, imagination and thinking), the need for which is associated with entering school, are consolidated and further developed.

Attention at primary school age becomes voluntary, but for quite a long time, especially in the primary grades, children’s non-voluntary attention remains strong and competes with voluntary attention. The volume and stability, switchability and concentration of voluntary attention in children in the fourth grade of school are almost the same as in an adult. As for switchability, it is even higher at this age than on average in adults. This is due to the youth of the body and the mobility of processes in the child’s central nervous system.

Memory development continues during school years. A. A. Smirnov conducted a comparative study of memory in children of primary and secondary school age and came to the following conclusions:

— from 6 to 14 years of age, children actively develop mechanical memory for logically unrelated units of information;

—contrary to the popular belief that there is an advantage in memorizing meaningful material that increases with age, an inverse relationship is actually found: the older a student gets, the less advantage he has in memorizing meaningful material over meaningless material.

15 pages, 7241 words

Psychological features of memory in preschool children

... actions of perception and thinking performed by the child. For young preschoolers, involuntary memorization and reproduction is the only form of memory work. At the same time, the child is unable to... form consciousness and develop the child’s figurative thinking; memory is transformed into figurative memory, where information is stored in the form of images and concepts. And memory becomes verbal as...

In general, the memory of children of primary school age is quite good, and this primarily concerns mechanical memory, which progresses quite quickly over the first three to four years of school. Indirect, logical memory is somewhat behind in its development, since in most cases the child, being busy with learning, work, play and communication, makes do with mechanical memory.

During the first three to four years of school, the progress in children's mental development can be quite noticeable. From the dominance of visual-effective and elementary figurative thinking, from the pre-conceptual level of development and thinking poor in logic, the student rises to verbal-logical thinking at the level of specific concepts.

At this age, the general and special abilities of children are revealed quite well, allowing one to judge their talent.

The complex development of children's intelligence at primary school age goes in several different directions: the assimilation and active use of speech as a means of thinking; connection and mutually enriching influence on each other of all types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical; allocation, isolation and relatively independent development of two phases in the intellectual process: preparatory and executive. In the preparatory phase of solving a problem, its conditions are analyzed and a plan is developed, and in the executive phase this plan is practically implemented. The result obtained is then related to conditions and problems. To all that has been said, one should add the ability to reason logically and use concepts.

Method 1

“Ravin Matrix”

This technique is intended for assessing visual-figurative thinking in younger schoolchildren. Here, visual-figurative thinking is understood as that which is associated with operating with various images and visual representations when solving problems.

The child is offered a series of ten gradually more complex tasks of the same type: searching for patterns in the arrangement of parts on a matrix and selecting one of eight drawings as the missing insert to this matrix corresponding to its drawing. Ten minutes are allotted to complete all ten tasks.

Method 2

“Ability to count in your head”

Using this technique, a child’s ability to perform mental arithmetic operations with numbers and fractions of various types is tested: simple, decimal, and also with complex fractional-integer numbers.

Method 3

Formation of concepts.

The technique is a set of planar figures - squares, triangles and circles - of three different colors and three different sizes. The signs of these figures: shape, color and size - form three-letter artificial concepts that have no semantic meaning in his native language.

Cards with colored figures on them are laid out in random order next to each other in front of the child, so that the child can see and study all the cards at the same time.

At the experimenter’s command, the subject, in accordance with the task received, begins to search for the concept he has conceived.

3 pages, 1123 words

Psychophysiological techniques. Definitions of method, technique, test

... tests Group characteristic Name of the test type Brief description of the test type By subject of testing (what quality is assessed) intellectual Designed to assess the level of development of thinking (intelligence) ... how do methods, techniques and tests differ? 2. List the features of high-level formalization techniques? 3. What methods can you name based on the type of test tasks used? ...

When all the cards have been selected, the child must define the corresponding concept, that is, say what specific features are included in it.

At the beginning of the study, the experimenter conceives a concept containing only one feature, then two, and finally three.

Three minutes are allotted to solve each of the three problems.

Method 4

Definition of concepts, clarification of reasons, identification of similarities and differences in objects.

Defining concepts, finding out reasons, identifying similarities and differences in objects are operations of thinking, by assessing which we can judge the degree of development of the child’s intellectual processes.

These features of thinking are established by the correctness of answers to a series of questions asked by the experimenter.

Method 5

"Rubik's Cube"

This technique is intended to diagnose the level of development of visual and effective thinking.

Using a Rubik's cube, the child is given tasks of varying degrees of complexity to work with it and is asked to solve them under time pressure.

They give 9 problems that need to be solved within nine minutes, for each problem - one minute.

Adolescence.

During adolescence, cognitive processes such as memory, speech and thinking improve.

Teenagers can already think logically, engage in theoretical reasoning and self-analysis. They talk relatively freely on moral, political and other topics that are practically inaccessible to the intellect of a junior schoolchild. High school students have the ability to draw general conclusions based on particular premises and, on the contrary, move to private conclusions based on general premises, i.e. the ability for induction and deduction. The most important intellectual acquisition of adolescence is the ability to operate with hypotheses.

By high school age, children acquire many scientific concepts and learn to use them in the process of solving various problems. This means that they have developed theoretical or verbal-logical thinking. At the same time, there is an intellectualization of all other cognitive processes.

During adolescence, important processes associated with memory restructuring occur. Logical memory begins to actively develop and soon reaches such a level that the child begins to predominantly use this type of memory, as well as voluntary and mediated memory. As a reaction to the more frequent practical use of logical memory in life, the development of mechanical memory slows down.

Adolescence is characterized by increased intellectual activity, which is stimulated not only by the natural age-related curiosity of adolescents, but also by the desire to develop, demonstrate to others their abilities, and receive high appreciation from them. In this regard, teenagers in public strive to take on the most difficult and prestigious tasks, often demonstrating not only highly developed intelligence, but also extraordinary abilities. They are characterized by an emotionally negative affective reaction to too simple tasks.

Teenagers can formulate hypotheses, reason speculatively, explore and compare different alternatives when solving the same problems. The sphere of cognitive, including educational, interests of adolescents goes beyond the boundaries of school and takes the form of cognitive initiative - the desire to search and acquire knowledge, to develop useful skills. The desire for self-education is a characteristic feature of adolescence.

11 pages, 5337 words

Question 1. Correctiveness of psychodiagnostic methods of mental development

... they are indicators of his level of mental development. The most important task in developing a test is the choice of criterion to which the mental development of a person must correspond and with which ... on which the success of the latter depends. The discrepancy between the traditional test methodology and the methodology that has correction (in terms of the concepts used) is very important. ...

The thinking of a teenager is characterized by the desire for broad generalizations. At the same time, a new attitude to learning is developing, especially in the last grades of school. Its graduates are attracted to subjects and types of knowledge where they can get to know themselves better, demonstrate independence, and they develop a particularly favorable attitude towards such knowledge. Along with a theoretical attitude towards the world, objects and phenomena, a teenager develops a special cognitive attitude towards himself, which appears in the form of a desire and ability to analyze and evaluate his own actions, as well as the ability to take the point of view of another person, to see and perceive the world from other positions than your own.

Independence of thinking is manifested in the independence of choosing a method of behavior. Teenagers accept only what they personally think is reasonable, appropriate and useful.

Method 1.

A table is given with numbers arranged according to a certain pattern (sizes, text density, range of values ​​can vary significantly, as well as the complexity of the memorization algorithm).

The subject’s task is to determine this pattern and, using it, cross out previously known numbers in the minimum amount of time. The dominant type of thinking and the ability to identify and generalize patterns are tested. Time and the correctness of determining the pattern are taken into account.

Method 2.

It is proposed to take the Eysenck test in the school version (both Russian, American or European standards can be used).

The result will be a fairly extensive amount of data on thinking, memory and other characteristics of the subjects’ intelligence. The test can also be used in fairly large groups; it is possible to interpret individual results for the entire group (find out the average “intelligence quotient” values ​​for the group, and so on).

Method 3.

A worksheet is provided with a number of concepts. It is necessary to establish logical-quantitative relationships between them, without using other concepts and terms (option: using other terms and concepts).

The principles of ordering can be very diverse - highlight all synonyms, antonyms, words with similar lexical meaning, only technical terms, only borrowed words, and so on. Both the general level of erudition of the subjects and the speed of switching between different, sometimes mutually exclusive, types of activities (finding synonyms and antonyms) are assessed.

Method 4.

Bennett's Technical Thinking Test. The data obtained can in a certain way indicate a possible inclination towards technical specialties. Allows you to effectively test the level of technical thinking.

Integrated set of tests in various sciences (American school version).

Allows you to accurately judge the degree of education of the test subject in various subjects of the school curriculum. In the translated version, it requires adaptation to a specific school program.

8 pages, 3805 words

Test No. 1: Methodology for studying the personality and cognitive sphere of a schoolchild

... - revolution 18. Spore-seed 19. Metaphor - allegory Test No. 6. Studying the level of aspirations and self-esteem of the student Progress in completing the task. ... to intervene, Make a career, Become a qualified specialist, Benefit a person, Difficult to answer. How satisfied are you: satisfied completely satisfied ... humor capriciousness indifference Test No. 8. Self-esteem research (Dembo method - R

Method 5.

Bennett's Technical Thinking Test. The data obtained can in a certain way indicate a possible inclination towards technical specialties. Allows you to effectively test the level of technical thinking.

Adolescence.

Early adolescence is a time of real transition to real adulthood, the first signs of which appear, as we have already seen, in adolescence.

The period of early adolescence, traditionally associated with studying in high school, marks the formation of moral self-awareness. By the end of school, the majority of boys and girls are practically morally formed people, possessing mature and fairly stable morality, which, along with abilities, motives and character traits, represents the fourth personal new formation of childhood.

In youth, more than at other ages, accentuated character types are encountered, and rapid, unpredictable and frequent transitions from one mood to another are observed. Boys and girls are susceptible to emotions, touchy, impulsive, prone to categorical judgments and insufficiently thought-out actions.

Intellectual maturity, including the moral and ideological readiness of older schoolchildren to set and solve various life problems, is obvious at this age, although here we have to talk about it in general terms, bearing in mind the relatively low level of intellectual development of a considerable number of modern boys and girls.

Senior schoolchildren, regardless of their individual characteristics, know, understand and follow certain moral standards. Their moral consciousness reaches a fairly high level of maturity.

The study of intellectual development at a given age should be aimed at identifying specific motives for learning, clarifying the level at which a person can operate with abstract concepts and connections between them, and modulate various processes in his imagination.

A separate set of tests should be aimed at clarifying the professional orientation of each individual subject and should reveal the level and type of thinking. For this purpose, Bennett's technical test, a set of tests of a Kyotin nature, can be used, establishing connections between abstract concepts and modeling the schemes of these concepts. The study of intelligence is not limited to tests of intellectual development (Eysenck test); a very important task is to determine the inclinations and abilities that should clearly manifest themselves by this time. The specific task is to determine the potential of each subject in one or another area of ​​human activity. Ultimately, all intelligence tests in adolescence should be aimed at determining the inclinations of older schoolchildren towards a particular profession and the choice of a life path.

Method 1.

Logical-quantitative relations.

The subject is asked to solve 20 problems to clarify logical-quantitative relationships.

9 pages, 4220 words

Test "Kos Cubes" diagnostics of non-verbal intelligence

... complement most tests of the structure of intelligence (such as the Amthauer R test), which allow you to assess the level of development of verbal-logical (verbal) ... verbal tests measure not so much intellectual talent as the degree of intellectual development of a person. The nonverbal test “... test is successfully used in all variants of D. Wechsler’s methodology for measuring intelligence. In 1939, a test...

In each of the problems, it is necessary to determine which quantity is greater or, accordingly, less than the other.

10 minutes are allotted to solve all problems.

Method 2.

Eysenck test

This test consists of eight subtests, five of which are intended to assess the general level of a person’s intellectual development, and three to assess the degree of development of his special abilities: mathematical, linguistic and those abilities that are needed in activities where figurative images are actively used. logical thinking.

Only if all eight subtests are completed can a full assessment be made of both the level of a person’s general intellectual development and the degree of development of his special abilities.

Method 3.

Stereometric tests related to the transformation of spatial objects (a computer is used).

They allow you to find out the level of development of spatial thinking and ability to study subjects of a technical nature (physics, geometric sections of mathematics, design, etc.).

Method 4.

A selection of questions of both general educational and moral and ethical nature is offered. Both the speed and correctness of answers, as well as their consistency with moral and ethical standards are taken into account. The test allows you to determine the moral and ethical level of the subjects, the proportion between moral and rational thinking. A similar test is offered when joining special units of the US and European armies (you are on enemy territory, performing a task, your camouflaged position is discovered by a little girl. Your actions).

Method 5

Assessment of the level of development of technical thinking.

This test is intended to evaluate a person’s technical thinking, in particular, his ability to read blueprints, understand the diagrams of technical devices and their operation, and solve simple physical and technical problems.

25 minutes are allotted for the entire work. The development of technical thinking is assessed by the number of correctly solved problems during this time.

Conclusion.

Human intelligence is an extremely multifactorial quantity. It determines both the social usefulness of a person and his individual characteristics, and serves as the main manifestation of reason. In essence, intelligence is what sets us apart from the animal world, what gives special significance to a person, which allows him to dynamically change the world around him, rebuilding the environment for himself, and not adapt to the conditions of a rapidly changing reality. A test or test of intelligence is the most important task, which at any stage will allow you to plan the further development of the individual, determine the course of the intellectual, moral and psychological evolution of a person. It is the level and type of development of intelligence that determines a person’s future, his destiny. The study of intelligence has interested humanity since ancient times and gradually grew from the questions “Who is more useful, smarter, more useful?” into a separate branch of psychology. Tests of intellectual development occupy a special place among psychological research methods. Here are just a few of them, illustrating the general methods and principles of intelligence research.

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Methods of psychological diagnostics of intelligence

Psychological diagnostics of intelligence presents a certain complexity associated with the insufficient development in modern psychology of the theory of general human abilities and the lack of a unified approach to the definition of intelligence.

However, at present, various methods for diagnosing intelligence, developed mainly by foreign authors, are widely used: Binet-Simon scales, Stanford-Binet test, Wechsler scales, Kaufman tests and others [1].

In the domestic literature, the test of structure of intelligence (TSI) by R. Amthauer is most widely used [1; 3] and the “Raven Table” technique (“Progressive Matrices Scale”) [5].

The Structure of Intelligence Test was proposed in 1953 by the German psychologist R. Amthauer and is intended to measure the level of intellectual development of persons aged 13 to 61 years. R. Amthauer considered intelligence as a specialized substructure in the holistic structure of personality. From his point of view, intelligence is interconnected and united into a certain integrity of mental abilities, manifested in various forms of activity. According to Amthauer, in the individual structure of intelligence there are certain “centers of gravity”, i.e. the predominant components are speech, computational and mathematical intelligence, spatial representations, memory functions, etc.

The TSI consists of nine subtests, each of which includes from 16 to 20 typical items (a total of 176 items in 9 subtests). Before each subtest, the examinee must read the instructions and analyze the proposed examples of solving tasks typical for this subtest. The execution time of each task has a certain limitation; The total duration of the test is 90 minutes.

Description of subtests of the Amthauer technique

Each correct answer of the respondent is scored 1 point (except for items of the IV subtest, where 2 points are assigned for each correct and accurate answer). Based on the testing results, a graphic image is built - a profile of the structure of intelligence, according to which the predominant components of the structure of intelligence are clearly determined.

The “Raven table” technique (“progressive matrix scale”) was developed in 1936 and is intended for diagnosing the level of intelligence. The test consists of non-verbal tasks, which is of no small importance, since the result is influenced to a lesser extent than by other methods by the knowledge acquired in connection with the training and life experience of the test subject. The obtained result allows one to judge mainly the ability for systematized, planned intellectual activity.

The test consists of 5 series, each of which contains 12 tasks. Each of the tasks contains a main structured drawing with a missing fragment and several variants of fragments of the same shape. The subject needs to mark in 20 minutes which of the answer options correspond to the missing fragment in each of the tasks. The difficulty of the tasks increases within each series and from series to series.

Description of the series of the Raven method

Each correct solution is worth one point. The resulting total score, taking into account age, is converted into percentages, and the intellectual level of the respondent is determined based on the percentage.

There are 5 degrees of intellectual level, one of which includes the level of intelligence of the subject according to the results of the Raven test:

• 1st degree – more than 95% – high rate;
• 2nd degree – 75-94% – above average intelligence;
• 3rd degree – 25-74% – average intelligence;
• 4th degree – 5-24% – below average intelligence;
• Grade 5 – below 5% – defect.

To pass intelligence tests, it is necessary to preserve the mental processes of attention (of particular importance are the properties of concentration, volume and distribution of voluntary attention), imagination and thinking. Therefore, if a low result is obtained on the Amthauer or Raven test, a diagnosis of the properties of attention and characteristics of thinking should be carried out.

In addition, since both tests are performed in limited time intervals, individuals with greater speed of thinking have a certain advantage in the process of passing these tests [3]. And since the speed of thinking is determined mainly by the properties of nervous processes, this leads to a slight decrease in the validity of the results of intelligence tests.

Therefore, in the process of interpreting the results of tests aimed at diagnosing the level of intelligence, one should take into account the increased likelihood of insufficient reliability of the results and especially carefully observe the ethical principles of the work of a psychologist.

Intelligence Research Methods

Methods for studying consciousness Read more: Study of will and psychomotor skills

38. Methods for studying intelligence

First of all, it is necessary to establish the correspondence of the patient’s stock of knowledge and education, the correspondence of life experience to age, and the nature of work activity. To do this, the patient is asked a whole series of questions that must be correlated with education and, in general, the expected level of intellectual development. If this condition is not taken into account, then further contact with the patient may be disrupted. This is especially true in cases where a patient with a high level of education is asked for basic information or if, in the absence of sufficient training, the person is asked questions that are too complex. Subsequently, in accordance with the existing mental knowledge, special techniques are used to test the capabilities of analysis and synthesis.

When studying the intelligence of an elderly person, it is necessary to remember that, according to research conducted in recent decades, a less destructive effect of aging on the intellectual abilities of more gifted people has been established.

The results of the study of intelligence are compared with the data of the study of other mental functions. Only after this can a final conclusion be made about the mental state of the patient and about those practical measures that are appropriate when communicating with him.

Currently, various psychometric methods have become very widespread in all countries of the world as methods of psychodiagnostics of intelligence. Among them, the most famous are the adult and children's versions of D. Wexler's technique and the method of progressive matrices by J. Raven.

Study of intelligence using the method of D. Wexler. Proposed by its author in 1949 for children and in 1955 for adults. In our country, the technique for adults was adapted at the Leningrad Psychoneurological Research Institute named after. V.M. Bekhterev in 1969, and the children's version of the technique - A.Yu. Panasyuk in 1973.

The technique is intended for a comprehensive study of intelligence and calculation of the intellectual coefficient IQ. The adult version of the technique is designed for the age range from 16 to 64 years (can be used at an older age); The children's version is used from 5 to 15 years 11 months 29 days.

The technique consists of 11 (adult version) or 12 (child version)

subtests, each of which is an independent psychodiagnostic technique that examines certain aspects of intellectual activity. All subtests are divided into two groups - verbal (6 subtests) and non-verbal (5 subtests in the adult version and 6 subtests in the children’s version). The group of verbal subtests includes:

subtest 1 (general awareness) - examines the reproduction of:

previously learned material, to a certain extent, measures the amount of knowledge acquired by the test subject and the state of long-term memory. Is largely culturally determined subtest -1

subtest 2 (general understanding) - contains questions that allow you to assess the social and cultural experience of the test taker, his ability to form conclusions based on past experience;

subtest 3 (arithmetic) - diagnoses the ability to concentrate active attention, speed of thinking, and the ability to operate arithmetic material. The results of this subtest show an inverse relationship with age;

subtest 4 (similarities) - assesses the logical nature of thinking, the ability to form a logical concept. The subtest may show some inverse relationship between success and the age of the subject;

subtest 5 (reproduction of numerical series in forward and reverse order) - used to study working memory and attention;

subtest 6 (vocabulary) - serves to assess the vocabulary of the subjects.

The listed six subtests, although they belong to the verbal group, are themselves quite heterogeneous. This was most convincingly shown by the studies of D. Bromley (1966), who established different dynamics of success in performing individual verbal subtests depending on age.

Based on the test taker’s performance on verbal subtests, their integral score is calculated—the so-called verbal IQ.

Nonverbal subtests are represented by five methods for adults and six for children.

subtest 7 (digital symbols, encryption) - examines hand-eye coordination, psychomotor skills, and learning ability;

subtest 8 (finding missing details in a picture) - reveals the test subject’s ability to identify essential features of an object or phenomenon, examines the concentration of active attention, its role in reproducing images;

subtest 9 (Koos cubes) - serves to study spatial imagination, constructive thinking;

subtest 10 (sequential pictures) - reveals the test subject’s ability to establish the sequence of plot development in a series of pictures, his anticipation of thinking and the ability to plan social actions. To a certain extent, based on the results of this subtest, one can get an idea of ​​the social intelligence of the test taker;

subtest 11 (addition of figures) - measures the ability to compose a single semantic whole from individual fragments, the hand-eye coordination of the subject.

The children's version of D. Wechsler's method for measuring intelligence in its nonverbal part also contains another subtest, an alternative to the digit encryption subtest - subtest 12 (labyrinths).

In the same way as the integral indicator of verbal subtests is determined, the integral indicator of the performance of nonverbal subtests - nonverbal IQ - is also calculated. Then, based on the results obtained, the general IQ is determined.

All IQ indicators are calculated depending on the age of the subject.

The Wechsler test is carefully standardized and has high reliability (for the adult version - 0.97, for the children's version - 0.95-0.96).

The technique is widely used in clinical practice, correctional pedagogy (mainly in oligophrenopedagogy), professional selection, and forensic psychological examination.

Progressive Matrices Scale by J. Raven. Proposed in 1936. It was developed within the framework of the traditional English school of psychology, according to which the best way to measure intelligence is to identify relationships between abstract figures.

Raven's black and white standard matrices are intended for adults aged 20 to 65 years; they can also be used to study children and adolescents aged 8 to 14 years.

Raven's color matrices (a simpler version of the technique) are used to study children aged 5 to 11 years; they are also recommended for people over 65 years of age and mentally disabled people.

Raven's advanced matrices are designed to study intelligence in gifted individuals.

Raven's technique consists of non-verbal tasks, which, according to many foreign intelligence researchers, is important, since it allows less consideration of the knowledge acquired by the subject in the process of education and through life experience.

Raven's standard matrices include 60 black-and-white tables arranged in five series of increasing difficulty: A, B, C, D, B. Each series contains 12 tables, arranged in order of increasing complexity of the geometric image.

Series A uses the principle of establishing relationships in the matrix structure. The subject is required to complete the missing part of the image. The following are studied: the ability to differentiate the main elements of the structure and reveal the connections between them; the ability to identify the missing part of the structure and compare it with the presented samples. Series B is built on the principle of analogy between pairs of figures. The subject must find the principle according to which the analogy is constructed in each individual case, and, based on this, select the missing fragment.

Series C is formed on the principle of progressive changes in the figures of the matrices. These figures within the same matrix become more and more complex, as if they are continuously developing.

The matrix figures in the D series are built on the principle of regrouping. The subject must detect this rearrangement occurring in the horizontal and vertical directions.

The E series is based on the principle of decomposing the figures of the main image into elements. The missing figure can be found by understanding the principle of analysis and synthesis of figures.

Raven's progressive matrices method allows you to use a special table to convert the results obtained into an intellectual coefficient IQ. The reliability of the technique is quite high - according to a number of special studies, it ranges from 0.7 to 0.89. Raven's technique is widely used in professional selection and clinical psychodiagnostics. In our country, J. Raven’s methods are adapted by a team of employees of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences under the leadership of V.I. Belopolsky.

In addition to those described, there are other methods for psychometric research of intelligence (R. Amthauer, R. Cattell, etc.).

Methods for studying consciousness Read more: Study of will and psychomotor skills

Information about the job "Clinical Psychology"

Section: Psychology Number of characters with spaces: 497750 Number of tables: 8 Number of images: 1

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Analysis and interpretation of intelligence diagnostic results

Protocol No. 1 for psychological diagnostics of intelligence

Subject: M., female, 28 years old.

Date of diagnosis: 08/16/2009.

Test duration: 1 hour 16 minutes.

State of the subject: according to self-report, the subject feels well, does not feel any signs of physical or psychological discomfort, is interested in the diagnostic process and results, and is focused on completing the test tasks.

Diagnostic conditions: testing was carried out in a separate room, with a sufficient level of lighting, in the absence of noise and other distractions, in the absence of unauthorized persons.

Diagnostic material and equipment: standard diagnostic material for the TSI test by R. Amthauer, answer sheet, stopwatch.

Task: diagnosing the structure of the subject’s intelligence.

Instructions to the subject and procedure for work: the subject is presented with the instructions proposed in the source [3] for each of the subtests of the method; The sequence of tasks is standard.

Progress of the experiment: the subject completed all tasks before the end of the time limiting the completion of the corresponding subtest. After completing the test, the subject reported feeling tired.

Results: the test subject's answers are summarized in a table (Appendix 1).

Processing of results: carried out in accordance with the key to the methodology. For the convenience of analyzing the graphical image, the scores for each subtest are converted into percentages (where 100% is the maximum possible indicator for each subtest).

Table of results of testing the structure of intelligence

Graphic representation of test results

Analysis of results. Normative data for the Amthauer technique are not given in the source [3], so the analysis of the results is based on comparing the results for individual subtests of the technique with each other.

The highest percentage of correct answers was given by the subject to the tasks of the subtests “Analogies”, “Arithmetic problems” and “Number series” (95% each). This indicates the mathematical talent of the subject, the predominance of mathematical abilities in the structure of intelligence. The subject’s verbal abilities are highly developed, but to a lesser extent than mathematical ones (75% of correct answers to the tasks of the “Adding Sentences” subtest, 80% to the tasks of the “Elimination of Words” subtest). The smallest percentage of correct answers was given by the subject to the tasks of the “Memory” (50%) and “Spatial Generalization” (55%) subtests.

Conclusions. The structure of the subject’s intelligence is dominated by mathematical and, to a lesser extent, verbal abilities. Constructive abilities and memory are least developed. Thus, in the process of processing information, the subject is more inclined to operate with signals and signs than with visual images, which indicates the greater possibilities of her theoretical thinking in comparison with practical thinking.

Protocol No. 2 for psychological diagnostics of intelligence

Subject: M., female, 28 years old.

Date of diagnosis: 08/17/2009.

Test duration: 18 minutes.

State of the subject: according to self-report, the subject’s well-being is within normal limits, the subject does not feel any signs of physical or psychological discomfort, is interested in the diagnostic process and results, and is focused on completing the test tasks.

Diagnostic conditions: testing was carried out in a separate room, with a sufficient level of lighting, in the absence of noise and other distractions, in the absence of unauthorized persons.

Diagnostic material and equipment: standard diagnostic material of the Raven test (“progressive matrix scale”), answer sheet, stopwatch.

Task: diagnosing the level of non-verbal intelligence of the subject.

Instructions for the test subject and procedure: the test subject is presented with the instructions for the test proposed in the source [5]; The sequence of tasks is standard.

The course of the experiment: the completion of the tasks was accompanied by the speech activity of the subject; the speech contained elements of analysis of the test tasks. The subject completed all tasks before the end of the time limiting the test.

Results: the test subject's answers are summarized in a table (Appendix 2).

Processing of results: carried out in accordance with the key to the methodology.

Nonverbal Intelligence Test Results Table

Analysis of results. The smallest number of correct answers was given by the test subject to the tasks of series E: this series is the last and most difficult. The level of non-verbal intelligence of the subject, in accordance with the table of normative data given in the source [5], is 95% (I degree - high intelligence).

Conclusions. A high level of non-verbal intelligence is diagnosed, indicating the subject’s high ability to carry out systematic and systematic intellectual activity.

Main part

We often use the term “Intelligence” when we want to characterize a person. Speaking about intelligence, they mean mental abilities, mental development, they also correlate intelligence with reason, knowledge, giftedness, etc. Many psychologists view intelligence as a stable structure of mental abilities.

But if we try to find a classical or scientific definition of intelligence, we simply won’t find it. Because what is not material becomes dependent on the scientific views and theoretical positions of researchers[1].

Since the concept of intelligence does not have a precise definition, we will denote that intelligence reflects a person’s abilities to cognition, understanding and thinking. We will accept such a construction (at the content level) as a working hypothesis.

A person has access to different ways of thinking due to the fact that the hemispheres of our brain are functionally different and the dominance of one of the parts determines the strategy of thinking - abstract-logical or visual-figurative.[2]

The main tool for studying human cognitive abilities is a testing instrument. Tests, as models of individual cognitive properties that are important in a person’s professional activity, are quite successfully used both for research purposes and in solving practical problems.

There are several popular tests for determining intelligence quotient (IQ), let's look at a few of them.

For example, Hans Jürgen Eysenck tests, intended for people in the age group from 18 to 60 years. They are presented in the form of 8 tests, 5 of which are quite similar to each other and give a general assessment of a person’s intelligence, provided that the instructions are strictly followed. There are also three specialized tests.

What is good about the method for determining the level of intelligence proposed by Eysenck? The fact is that thanks to the existence of several testing methods, it is possible to equalize the chances at the level of determining intelligence for different types of personalities. Thus, for example, a person who solves arithmetic problems quite well, but finds verbal tasks difficult, has no advantage over someone who, on the contrary, easily copes with verbal tests. That is, in tests, different types of tasks are used in equal proportions. Thus, a fairly well-known psychologist made a great contribution to the research and study of human intellectual abilities. The tests developed by Eysenck are widely used today to determine IQ level.

We will also consider the test of the structure of intelligence belonging to Rudolf Amthauer. Its group test is designed to assess the structure of intelligence of individuals aged 13 to 61 years. The author included tasks for diagnosing the following components of intelligence: verbal, arithmetic, spatial, mnemonic. Intelligence was understood by Amthauer as a substructure in the structure of a person’s personality, as a structured integrity of a person’s mental abilities, which are realized in achievements. Individual abilities are interconnected, have a certain structure and cannot be understood as isolated elements. The methodology for performing the intelligence structure test consists of nine sections of 16-20 tasks each. Descriptions of tasks and sample solutions are given in the instructions placed before each section. Based on intelligence testing, it is possible to note certain physical, mathematical and natural scientific abilities of the test subject; implementation in the technical field is possible. For more accurate professional guidance, the interests of the subject should be considered.

We formulated the concept of intelligence and examined several basic ways to assess intelligence. But how is a high level of intelligence reflected in a person’s habits, behavior and psychology?

For example, finding and seeing associations and connections in non-obvious places, which for other people may seem difficult or take much longer. For example, people with a fairly high IQ can quickly determine what is common between a watermelon and a sashimi dish (the berry and the dish are eaten raw and cold). The ability to see and find parallels and general patterns is inextricably linked with intelligence, and this also includes creativity as the ability to imagine something old from a new perspective.

Also, people with a high level of intelligence show great curiosity. For example, Albert Einstein said about himself that he was not very gifted, but he was very curious. Most often, “ordinary” people take “ordinary” things for granted or do not pay attention to them at all, while intellectuals can admire exactly the same things and ask questions about how it is made or how it works.

The following feature occupies a certain place - easy and quick adaptation. Intelligence is inextricably linked with the ability to change and adjust one’s behavior in order to be able to act most effectively in the current situation.

Also, individuals with a high level of intelligence have the ability to concentrate on small details. A small study conducted in 2013 confirmed this. In experiments, it turned out that people with high IQ (intelligence quotient) have a harder time noticing how the background slowly changes in a large image - because they concentrate on smaller details.

The traits listed above allow individuals with above average intelligence to be considered promising employees, since they can quickly navigate a difficult situation and make the necessary decisions, maintain a good concentration on certain tasks, and can offer a non-standard solution to a common situation/problem.

Bibliography

1. Anastasi A., Urbina S. Psychological testing. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. – 688 p. – (Series “Masters of Psychology”).
2. Druzhinin V.N. Psychology of General Abilities - St. Petersburg: Peter Publishing House, 1999. - 368 pp.: (Series “Masters of Psychology”).
3. Eliseev O.P. Workshop on personality psychology - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Peter", 2000. - 560 p. – (Series “Workshop in Psychology”).
4. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. – 592 p. – (Series “Textbook of the New Century”).
5. Shapar V.B., Timchenko A.V., Shvydchenko V.N. Practical psychology. Tools. – Rostov n/d: publishing house “Phoenix”, 2002. – 688 p.

Application

Appendix 1. The test subject's answers to the tasks of the R. Amthauer test

Appendix 2. Subject's answers to the Raven test tasks