How do neurotransmitters work?
Nerve cells communicate with each other using processes - axons and dendrites.
The gap between them is the so-called synaptic cleft. This is where the interaction of neurons occurs. Mediators are synthesized in the cell and delivered to the axon terminal - to the presynaptic membrane. There, under the influence of electrical impulses, they enter the synaptic cleft and activate the receptors of the next neuron. After activation of the receptors, the neurotransmitter returns back into the cell (so-called reuptake occurs) or is destroyed.
Neurotransmitters themselves are not proteins, so there is no “dopamine gene” or “adrenaline gene.” Proteins perform all the auxiliary work: enzyme proteins synthesize the neurotransmitter substance, transporter proteins are responsible for delivery, receptor proteins activate the nerve cell. Several proteins—and therefore several different genes—may be responsible for the proper functioning of one neurotransmitter.
The difference between hormones, their main functions
Having understood what the elements in question are, and having learned which gland produces the hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine, it is necessary to understand what the difference is between these elements. And there are several differences.
So what's the difference?
The differences between norepinephrine and adrenaline lie primarily in the effect of each of these hormonal units on the human body.
First of all, we note that a sharp increase in the level of adrenaline in the blood has more severe manifestations and can cause serious deviations. Its negative impact on the body is manifested by increased irritability, nervousness, and aggressiveness. This causes serious harm to the cardiovascular system.
Quite often you can hear the question: does adrenaline constrict or dilate blood vessels? This substance has vasoconstrictor properties, which are widely used in medical practice. However, excessive narrowing of blood vessels, as already noted, is fraught with serious health consequences.
Another criterion related to the question of how adrenaline differs from norepinephrine is its ability to induce euphoria. Epinephrine is a substance that can lead to this condition, but norepinephrine never causes it. Moreover, norepinephrine has a pronounced cosmetic effect, which cannot be said about adrenaline. Thus, under its influence, a blush appears on the cheeks, and small expression wrinkles are smoothed out.
Functions of hormonal elements
How does adrenaline affect the body, what are its main tasks and role? It should immediately be noted that the functional features of this substance and norepinephrine are similar to each other, so there is no need to consider them separately.
So, what are the functions of adrenaline?
- narrowing of blood vessels;
- increased heart rate;
- faster breathing;
- increased blood pressure;
- the appearance of tremor in the upper and lower extremities;
- acceleration of intestinal motility.
In addition, the effect of adrenaline and norepinephrine on the body is manifested:
- delivery of large amounts of oxygen to the cells and tissues of the body;
- an increase in blood glucose levels;
- acceleration of lipid and protein metabolism.
Therefore, if we talk about what adrenaline is in the blood, we conclude that it is a hormone that protects the human body from the dangerous consequences of stress and shock. However, its excess can lead to serious disorders, so this condition must be dealt with!
Dopamine
By activating neurons in different areas of the brain, dopamine plays multiple roles.
Firstly, it is responsible for motor activity and gives the joy of movement. Secondly, it gives a feeling of almost childish delight from learning new things - and the desire to search for novelty. Third, dopamine has an important function of reward and reinforcement of motivation: as soon as we do something useful for the life of the human species, neurons give us a reward - a feeling of satisfaction (sometimes called pleasure). At a basic level, we receive rewards for simple human joys - food and sex, but in general, the options for achieving satisfaction depend on everyone’s tastes - someone will get a “carrot” for completing the code, someone – for this article. The reward system is associated with learning: a person receives pleasure, and new cause-and-effect associations are formed in his brain. And then, when the pleasure passes and the question arises of how to get it again, a simple solution will arise - write another article.
Dopamine looks like an excellent stimulant for work and study, as well as an ideal drug - most drugs (amphetamine, cocaine) are associated with the action of dopamine, but there are serious side effects. An “overdose” of dopamine leads to schizophrenia (the brain works so actively that it begins to manifest itself in auditory and visual hallucinations), and a deficiency leads to depressive disorder or the development of Parkinson’s disease.
Dopamine has five receptors, numbered D1 to D5. The fourth receptor is responsible for the search for novelty. It is encoded by the DRD4 gene, the length of which determines the intensity of dopamine perception. The lower the number of repetitions, the easier it is for a person to reach the peak of pleasure. For such people, a delicious dinner and a good movie will most likely be enough.
The greater the number of repetitions - and there can be up to ten - the more difficult it is to get pleasure. Such people have to try hard to get a reward: go on a trip around the world, conquer the top of a mountain, do a somersault on a motorcycle, or bet their entire fortune on red in Las Vegas. This genotype is associated with the range of migration of ancient people from Africa across Eurasia. There is also sad statistics: among those convicted in prisons for serious crimes, the “unsatisfactory” variant of DRD4 is more common.
Why is norepinephrine produced?
It is responsible for the fastest possible adaptation of the body to stress; it prepares the body and brain for something difficult. When there is too much norepinephrine, some people cannot stand the anxious feeling of anticipation, they begin to freak out, fall into a stupor, even if they previously agreed with it, like before going on a scary ride. Others, on the contrary, are inspired, feel their blood boiling, laugh, feel the strength in every muscle.
If there is not too much norepinephrine, but not too little, then this is an average adaptation of the body, that is, good energy, vigor, high spirits.
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter for wakefulness and quick decision making.
It is activated under stress and in extreme situations, and is involved in the “fight or flight” response. Norepinephrine causes a surge of energy, reduces feelings of fear, and increases the level of aggression. At the somatic level, under the influence of norepinephrine, the heart rate increases and blood pressure increases. Norepinephrine is a favorite neurotransmitter of surfers, snowboarders, motorcyclists and other fans of extreme sports, as well as their colleagues in casinos and gaming clubs - the brain does not differentiate between real events and imaginary ones, so the life-threatening risk of losing your fortune at cards is enough to activate norepinephrine .
High levels of norepinephrine lead to decreased vision and analytical abilities, and a deficiency leads to boredom and apathy.
The SLC6A2 gene encodes a norepinephrine transporter protein. It ensures the reuptake of norepinephrine into the presynaptic membrane. Its work determines how long norepinephrine will act in the human body after it has successfully coped with a dangerous situation. Mutations in this gene can cause attention deficit disorder (ADHD).
Functions of norepinephrine
It has a lot of functions. We have already mentioned some. Now we can talk about each of them in more detail. If you want to know how to increase norepinephrine in the body, then check out all of them so you know what effect to expect.
Activation function - either run away or hit. At this moment, the person’s pupils dilate and contract, and the heart contracts faster. Glucose is released from energy reserves into the blood. The brain and skeletal muscles are intensively supplied with oxygen and blood, respectively. All this is necessary to speed up the reactions.
Heart. The heart rate accelerates when norepinephrine is released. This is similar to the start of the heart that we usually see in movies when the patient is on the verge of life and death. It is at such moments that he is injected with norepinephrine.
Preparing for action. Norepinephrine increases motivation, both internal and external. And then the person is ready to make a decision without much hesitation.
Sleep-wake cycle. We have already talked about this. The hormone allows us not to lose vigilance, and also makes sure that we wake up and fall asleep.
Sexual activity. Norepinephrine is also responsible for our sexual behavior. Apparently, this is why many people want to know how to increase norepinephrine.
It is worth noting that the neurotransmitter is not only released when we are stressed. Favorite music and pleasant landscapes also stimulate the release of the hormone into the blood. Thanks to him, interesting thoughts come to a person. And norepinephrine is often considered one of the hormones of creative people.
Serotonin
We are used to hearing about it as the “hormone of happiness”, while serotonin is not a hormone at all, and with “happiness” everything is not so simple.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that not only brings positive emotions, but reduces sensitivity to negative ones. It provides support to “neighboring” neurotransmitters - norepinephrine and dopamine; serotonin is involved in motor activity, reduces general pain, and helps the body in the fight against inflammation. Serotonin also increases the accuracy of the transmission of active signals in the brain and helps to concentrate. An excess of serotonin (for example, from LSD use) increases the “volume” of secondary signals in the brain, and hallucinations occur. Lack of serotonin and an imbalance between positive and negative emotions are the main cause of depression.
The 5-HTTLPR gene encodes the serotonin transporter protein. The gene sequence contains a region of repeats, the number of which may vary. The longer the chain, the easier it is for a person to maintain a positive attitude and switch from negative emotions. The shorter it is, the higher the likelihood that a negative experience will be traumatic. The number of repetitions is also associated with sudden infant death syndrome, aggressive behavior in the development of Alzheimer's disease, and a tendency to depression.
Cons of norepinephrine:
- Fogs the brain. That feeling when thoughts flash, but all are spontaneous and thoughtless. This occurs due to vasoconstriction.
- Labored breathing.
— Anxiety/twitchiness.
- Blurred vision/ringing in the ears.
Load that increases norepinephrine in natural conditions:
- watching a horror movie in good company)
- extreme (rock climbing, martial arts...)
- actions that cause fear, but which are committed consciously and intentionally. If you are afraid of heights, for example, and you decide to go out onto the roof of a tall building and look down, norepinephrine will be produced. If you were tied up and sat at the edge of the roof - then adrenaline. This is the main difference.
Destruction of neurotransmitters
The action of neurotransmitters is like a holiday, as if everyone had gone out into the street in a joyful crowd to watch the fireworks.
But the holiday cannot (and should not) last forever, and neon roses in the night sky must give way to the usual constellations and morning dawn. For this, the body has a function of transmitter reuptake - when the substance returns from the synaptic cleft back to the presynaptic membrane of the axon and the action of the neurotransmitter stops. But sometimes reuptake is not enough, and more effective measures are needed - the destruction of the neurotransmitter molecule. These functions are also performed by proteins. The COMT gene encodes the enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase, which destroys norepinephrine and dopamine. How well you cope with stressful situations depends on how well the protein works. Those with an active form of the COMT gene—warriors by nature—receive reduced levels of dopamine in the frontal lobe of the brain, which is responsible for processing information and pleasurable sensations. Such people adapt better to stressful situations, they are open to communication, and they have better memory. But due to low dopamine levels, they experience less pleasure in life, are more prone to depression, and have less developed motor functions. A low-active variant of the COMT gene reverses the situation. Those with an inactive mutation have good fine motor skills, are more creative, but have poor pain tolerance, and when they get into a stressful situation, they become irritable, impulsive, and anxious. COMT gene mutations are also associated with Parskinsonism and hypertension.
The gene for the enzyme monoamine oxidase A MAOA is responsible for the deactivation of monoamines - neurotransmitters with one amino group, which include adrenaline, norepinephrine, serotonin, melatonin, histamine, dopamine. The better the MAOA gene works, the faster the “fog of mind” caused by a stressful situation is neutralized and the faster a person is able to make informed decisions.
Sometimes even the MAOA gene is called the “criminal gene”: certain gene mutations contribute to the emergence of pathological aggression. Due to the fact that the gene is located on the X chromosome, and girls have two copies of this gene, and boys only one, there are statistically more “born criminals” among men.
Let’s not blame everything on genetics - even with regard to the “furious” MAOA gene, everything is not simple: a study by New Zealand scientists showed that the connection between the gene and aggressive behavior only appears in the presence of traumatic experience.
Understanding how neurotransmitters work allows us to take a fresh look at habitual emotions, mood swings, and even reconsider our ideas about what actually shapes our personality. You can continue the fascinating process of self-discovery with the Atlas genetic test - an excellent opportunity to find out your variant of the COMT and MAOA gene.
PS Second and third parts.
How to influence norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is synthesized from amino acids. She belongs to the irreplaceable. Our body does not produce it. To get it, you need the amino acid phenylalanine.
The process cannot be called simple. Like all those reactions that occur daily in our body. Let's try to schematically explain all the transformations in order to understand later how to increase norepinephrine.
Phenylalanine is produced by the body. After which the substance undergoes hydroxylation, which means the following: an OH molecule is added to the amino acid.
This preparation is necessary for the synthesis of tyrosine. This amino acid is the starting material for all catecholamines. These include our norepinephrine. That is why, to increase the latter, you should increase the intake of protein products into the body. There is a lot of tyrosine in meat, fish, and cheese. The amino acid is also found in vegetables, for example, beets. Apples, watermelons, and bananas (especially the peel) also contain tyrosine, as does wheat germ.
By consuming the above products, we supply the digestive system with proteins that will be broken down into amino acids. They are necessary for the adrenal glands to receive the same norepinephrine - the stress hormone and adrenaline - the fear hormone.
In addition, in addition to nutrition, you can use dietary supplements containing L-tyrosine. Before taking, you should consult a specialist. The drug has age restrictions. It is not used by people under 16 years of age. Purpose - improving the functioning of the thyroid gland, relieving stress, eliminating headaches, and combating nervous system disorders. We will talk about them below.
