Thinking as a higher cognitive process

INTRODUCTION

“Thinking is a tool for a person’s highest orientation in the world around him and in himself.”
I.P. Pavlov. Thinking is a psychological and cognitive process of reflecting in the human mind complex connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. The task of thinking is to reveal relationships between objects, identify connections and separate them from random coincidences. Thinking operates with concepts and assumes the functions of generalization and planning. The concept of thinking is a higher cognitive process, which significantly distinguishes it from other processes that help a person navigate the environment; since this concept traces the totality of all cognitive processes. Thinking is a process, and a complex one, taking place in the human mind and possibly without the manifestation of visible actions.

The difference between thinking and other mental processes of cognition is that it is always associated with an active change in the conditions in which a person finds himself. Thinking is always aimed at solving a problem. In the process of thinking, a purposeful and expedient transformation of reality is carried out. The thinking process is continuous and continues throughout life, transforming along the way due to the influence of factors such as age, social status, and stability of the living environment. The peculiarity of thinking is its indirect nature. What a person cannot know directly, directly, he knows indirectly, indirectly: some properties through others, the unknown through the known. Thinking is distinguished by types, processes and operations. The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with the concept of thinking. Intelligence is the general ability to understand and solve problems without trial and error, i.e. "in the mind." Intelligence is considered as a level of mental development achieved by a certain age, which is manifested in the stability of cognitive functions, as well as in the degree of mastery of skills and knowledge (according to the words of Zinchenko, Meshcheryakov). Intelligence as an integral part of thinking, its component and, in its own way, a generalizing concept.

The purpose of this test is to consider thinking as a cognitive process.

The tasks to achieve this goal are:

Define thinking.
Describe types of thinking.
Consider basic mental operations and thinking techniques.

Thinking as a mental process

Thinking is the highest form of human cognitive activity, a socially conditioned mental process of indirect and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching and discovering something essentially new.

The main features of the thinking process are:

Generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

Connection with practical activities.

Inextricable connection with speech.

The presence of a problematic situation and the absence of a ready answer.

A generalized reflection of reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to the general thing that unites a similar number of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean by this word tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, cabinets, etc.

An indirect reflection of reality can be seen in the example of the arithmetic problem of adding several apples or determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. “Apples” and “trains” are just symbols, conventional images, which should not be followed by specific fruits or compounds.

Thinking arises on the basis of practical activity, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond its limits. In turn, the correctness of thinking is tested during practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked with speech. Thinking operates with concepts, which in their form are words, but, in essence, are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, verbal concepts can be clarified.

Thinking takes place only when there is a problem situation. If you can get by with the old ways of acting, then thinking is not required.

To basic operations

thinking includes analysis (mental division of the whole into parts with subsequent comparison), synthesis (combining individual parts into a whole, constructing a whole from analytically given parts), concretization (application of general laws to a specific case, an operation inverse to generalization), abstraction (isolating which - a side or aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as an independent entity), generalization (mental unification of objects and phenomena that are similar in some respects), as well as comparison and classification.

22. Types of thinking.

Visual-effective is a type of thought process based on the direct perception of objects and phenomena, their transformation in reality. It is genetically the earliest type of thinking. Elementary forms of visual-effective thinking are observed not only in humans, but also in animals; Visual-figurative is a type of thinking associated with imagining situations and changes in them, with the creation of images. Thanks to it, it is possible to recreate the real characteristics of an object as an image visible from different points of view. Visual-figurative thinking also makes it possible to carry out unusual, incredible combinations of objects and their properties in an image, to carry out operations that are impossible in reality. It allows you to mentally take the position of an outside observer; Verbal-logical is a conceptual type of thinking based on the use of logical operations and concepts. The basis of this type of thinking is the development of linguistic means of communication. It is characterized by abstraction, operating with the most essential features and properties of objects, groups and classes of these objects. Theoretical is thinking that develops in the process of mentally operating with scientific concepts, analyzing the generalized characteristics of an object, and establishing general patterns. It is based on abstraction and is aimed at explaining phenomena, knowledge of laws and rules. Theoretical thinking operates with the general systemic properties of objects; Practical is thinking that develops in the process of transforming reality. It is based on the specification of general knowledge and information. Analytical is a type of thinking that is carried out through consistent logical conclusions. It unfolds in time, consciously, and has clearly defined stages; Intuitive is a type of thinking that is based on direct penetration into the essence of a phenomenon, the establishment of a pattern. It is characterized by a rapid progression, lack of clearly defined stages, and low awareness. Reproductive is a type of thought process that is based on the reproduction and application of ready-made knowledge and skills; Productive is a type of thought process that is characterized by the creation of a subjective new product and a significant transformation in the cognitive activity itself. It presupposes the subject’s personal involvement in the process of cognition and transformation of reality. .

23. Functions and properties of thinking.

Properties of thinking : 1. Mediation of thinking is a way of transferring knowledge from generation to generation. 2. Thinking is socially conditioned - it develops in society (society). 3. Generalization of thinking - generalization of the essential properties of the surrounding world. 4. Purposefulness and arbitrariness - thinking is always associated with solving a problem and is accompanied by volitional efforts. 5. Thinking is characterized by a connection with consciousness and unconsciousness. If we schematically highlight the main functions of thinking as a cognitive process, we should name the following: thinking highlights what is common that unites individual objects, events, facts; finds both significant and insignificant differences between certain things or reasoning; carries out a comparative analysis of possible ways to solve the problem; offers the optimal solution and subsequent actions and, figuratively speaking, accompanies the actions with the “light of reflection”: “good”, “it’s better this way”, “it’s worth thinking again”, “it’s advisable to make adjustments”, etc.

24. Theories of thinking.

Early theories of thinking. Representatives of the second group of concepts at an early stage identified thinking with logic, considering only one type of thinking - theoretical conceptual thinking. Thinking was recognized as an innate ability. Among the intellectual abilities, contemplation (as the ability to operate with images), logical reasoning (as the ability to reason and draw conclusions) and reflection (as the ability for introspection) stood out. Thinking operations included generalization, analysis, synthesis, comparison and classification. Associative theory of thinking. Thinking came down to associations, connections of traces of the past, impressions received from present experience. Thinking was also recognized as an innate ability. This theory could not explain the creative nature of thinking and considered it as an innate ability of the mind, independent of associations.

Theory of thinking in behaviorism. Thinking was viewed as a process of forming complex connections between stimuli and responses. Behaviorists were the first to consider practical thinking, the formation of practical skills and abilities related to problem solving. Psychoanalytic theory of thinking. Within the framework of this theory, unconscious forms of thinking, the dependence of thinking on needs and motives, and protective mechanisms of thinking began to be considered for the first time. The activity theory of thinking was developed by domestic scientists A.A. Smirnov, A.N. Leontyev and some others. This theory is based on the doctrine of the active nature of the human psyche. Within the framework of this theory, thinking is understood as a special type of cognitive activity, an ability to solve problems that develops during life. Thanks to this theory, the problem of contrasting theoretical and practical intellect, the subject and object of knowledge was finally solved, a new connection was discovered that exists between activity and thinking, as well as between different types of thinking itself. As a result of this, it became possible to solve questions of the origin of thinking, its formation and development in children as a result of targeted training.

Mechanistic approach

A. Mechanistic approach. Its main characteristics:

1) transfer of explanatory mechanisms of the functioning of any mental processes to thinking,

2) “subjectivity” of thinking (the internal activity of the subject is not taken into account),

3) reactivity, external conditioning of thinking,

4) replacing the explanation of the process with its modeling,

5) lack of a special language for analyzing thinking.

The mechanistic approach is represented by three theories:

1) Associationism (structuralism).

The initial elements of experience are sensory representations. Associations are established between them. Basic law of associations - the strength of associations depends on their repetition. Associations are formed: by similarity, contrast, spatial and temporal proximity, by relationship (causality, etc.). Thinking is an association of sensory ideas. Thus, a concept is formed through the association of ideas, a judgment - through the association of concepts, and a conclusion - through the association of judgments.

2) The theory of “photo overlay”. When several ideas are associated, their common, essential features are strengthened, forming a concept.

3) The theory of diffuse reproductions (G. Muller). Sensory representations cause a diffuse flow of associations in a person. When these flows are superimposed (reproduced), features are identified to form a concept. A concept is an association of ideas. Judgment is an association of concepts. Inference is an association of judgments. For example, the solution to problem 32. First association: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15... second association: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25... answer to the problem: 9 (reproduction as a result of the meeting of these associations). Principles: diffuse association and their superimposed reproduction.

Basic point of criticism: The concept of “general” and “essential” is identified.

Theological approach

The main characteristic of thinking is its purposefulness and activity. The question is raised about the specifics of thinking. Emphasis on updating past experience as the basis for solving a problem. Experimental studies are based on the material of reproductive problems. The main features of this approach are: 1) the subject’s internal focus on achieving a goal (for example, solving a problem), 2) in thinking there is a search for the essential (relationship) as opposed to what is visually perceived, 3) mental. as an act of considering the relationships of task elements

Wurzburg school. Representatives of this trend in psychology (O. Külpe, N. Ach, K. Marbe, etc.), in contrast to associationists, considered thinking as an internal action. They put forward the position that thinking has its own specific content, which cannot be reduced only to the visual and figurative. The Würzburg school also holds the claim that thinking has an objective orientation.

Representatives of the Würzburg school began the first experimental studies of mental processes. However, their experiments were limited only to the method of systematic self-observation, when qualified psychologists as subjects were required to report on their own thinking processes while performing tasks requiring mental actions. These could be tasks on interpreting complex texts, identifying relationships between objects, establishing cause-and-effect relationships, etc.

Subsequently, N. Ahom made the first attempt to create an objective method for studying thinking. He created a method for the formation of artificial concepts.

Despite the great contribution of the Würzburg school to the study of thinking and overcoming the mechanistic approach of associationism, its position was internally contradictory. Having put forward the principle of activity as the main one in the study of thinking, representatives of this direction interpreted activity in a purely idealistic sense. Having gotten rid of the extremes of “pure sensuality” of the associationists, they fell into the extreme of “pure thinking”.

Holistic approach

The subject of study is creative thinking. Basic questions about the structure and mechanisms for solving creative problems. Presented by the theory of Gestalt psychology. Productive thinking as restructuring and holistic organization of a problem situation. Insight as an instantaneous act of discerning significant relationships between elements of a situation. Understanding a problem situation is an understanding of the main conflict of the task (the contradiction between conditions and requirements). The main method is reasoning out loud. (Dunker)

Gestalt psychology. The main position around which the entire concept of Gestalt psychology was built was the following: the content of any mental process is not individual elements, but some integral formations, configurations, forms - the so-called Gestalts. The central object of study in this area of psychology was perception. In this case, the main principle of research was the division of the object of perception into “figure” and “ground”. Factors contributing to the perception of “figures” or gestalts were studied: the proximity of individual elements to each other, the similarity of elements, the orientation towards a “good figure” (closed, simple, symmetrical).

Subsequently, the laws discovered in the study of perception were transferred to the study of thinking. K. Koffka, one of the representatives of Gestalt psychology, who was actively involved in the study of thinking, in contrast to the Würzburg school, again returned to the idea of sensory contemplation, but from a different point of view. He believed that thinking is the transformation of the structure of visual situations.

A certain initial situation, constituting a task for thinking, is an unbalanced field, visual in its content. In this field there are places of uncertainty, empty content. As a result, tension arises, to relieve which it is necessary to move to another visual situation. Thus, in a number of successive transitions, the structure of the visual situation changes.

It ceases to be problematic and does not cause tension. The problem is solved simply as a result of the fact that the subject sees the situation differently. Moreover, this law applied to a very wide range of phenomena: from the solution of problems by higher animals to the interpretation of facts of scientific creativity and scientific discoveries.

Activity approach.

It was inherent in Soviet psychological science, which made a significant contribution to the development of world psychology, as evidenced by its recognition by many foreign scientists.

In Russian psychology, the problem of thinking developed within the framework of the psychological theory of activity. The development of this problem is associated with the names of A. A. Smirnov, A. N. Leontyev and others. From the standpoint of the psychological theory of the activity of thinking, it is understood as the ability to solve various problems and expediently transform reality that is formed during life.

The development of the activity approach in Russian psychology was started by L. Vygotsky. Creating a cultural and historical concept of human mental development, he substantiated the concept of “higher mental functions” (thinking in concepts, rational speech, logical memory, voluntary attention) as purely human, socially conditioned forms of the psyche. These functions arise and develop as forms of external activity and only then, mediated by signs, are gradually interiorized.

A. N. Leontyev proposed a concept of thinking, according to which there are analogies between the structures of external (component behavior) and internal (component thinking) activity. Internal mental activity is not only a derivative of external, practical activity, but also has a fundamentally the same structure. In it, as in practical activities, individual actions and operations can be distinguished. At the same time, internal and external elements of activity are interchangeable. The structure of mental, theoretical activity may include external, practical actions, and vice versa, the structure of practical activity may include internal, mental operations and actions. Consequently, thinking as a higher mental process is formed in the process of activity.

It should be noted that the activity theory of thinking contributed to the solution of many practical problems related to the learning and mental development of children. On its basis, well-known theories of learning and development were built, including the theories of P. Ya. Galperin, L. V. Zankov, V.V. Davydova.

Thinking as a process

To reveal the concept of a process in thinking means to show how external conditions determine internal ones and how internal conditions refract external influences.

S.L. Rubinstein believed that a problem situation is a situation in which the unknown is not given directly, but is given through its relationship to what is contained in it. Thinking is not reduced to one act of cognition of an object; it is unknown; what is sought is not revealed immediately. The result of one act of thinking is included in the further course of thought processes, knowledge of the object deepens more and more. This process is carried out as an interaction between subject and object, person and problem situation. Thinking changes the initial formulation of the problem, and this changed problem pushes the movement of our thought further.

Characteristics of external conditions cannot be given without internal conditions, without taking into account the fact that these external conditions determine. The interaction of subject and object (external and internal) in the process of thinking occurs as follows:

1 . External circumstances that influence thinking are themselves influenced by internal conditions

Attention and memory

The process of cognition can be represented as a ladder, the ascent along which begins with sensations, then moves on to perception, thinking, imagination and ends at the top, which is creativity. But two cognitive processes stand apart

This is attention and memory. They play an auxiliary role and exist only in connection with other cognitive processes

But on the other hand, no intelligent human activity is possible without them.

Attention

This is the concentration of consciousness on external objects and phenomena or on internal processes. In order to perceive something, we must focus on it, and objects that do not fall into the sphere of attention are simply not noticed by us, that is, they are not included in the process of cognition.

There are two main types of attention: voluntary and involuntary.

Involuntary attention occurs on its own, under the influence of specific stimuli. Such concentration, regardless of our desire, is caused by some strong, bright, unusual objects and phenomena, or those that matter to us and are associated with our interests and needs. Voluntary attention is a conscious activity aimed at maintaining concentration on objects that do not arouse interest.

The significance of these objects is determined by the goals and objectives of the activity, and not by their brightness and unusualness. For example, to concentrate on a complex textbook text, you need to make an effort. Voluntary attention is often difficult, so it is necessary to develop conscious concentration skills.

In psychology, attention is considered both as a dynamic side of cognition and as its guide. It is this process that determines the selectivity of our consciousness, not only in terms of cognition, but also in mental activity in general.

Attention is also associated with increased activity in various centers of the brain and makes any of our activities, including cognitive ones, effective and productive. And the loss of the ability to concentrate and concentrate, the involuntary loss of attention is a serious mental illness.

Memory

You already know that the images that arise in the process of perception are unstable. In order for them to be preserved and become part of experience and material for our thinking, the work of memory is necessary

Just like attention, it is not an independent mental process. There is no memory in its pure form, outside, for example, the processes of perception, which supplies information, or thinking, which works with what is stored in memory

All our experience, including professional and sensory-emotional, is the merit of memory. But it also performs other important functions, not only shaping experience, but also establishing a connection between the present and the past. And having lost his memory, a person, along with his memories and accumulated experience, loses his own personality.

There are 4 interconnected processes in memory:

memorization;
storing information;
its reproduction;
forgetting.

The latter process is also important not only in the field of cognition, but also for maintaining a person’s emotional balance.

Memorizing and storing data is closely related not only to all cognitive processes, but also to the field of activity. To make knowledge easier to remember and retain longer, it must be included in activities: repetition, comprehension, analysis, structuring, use in practice, etc.

Memory is associative in nature, that is, effective memorization occurs through establishing a connection (association) with information we already have. A very interesting and important conclusion follows from this: the more we know, the easier it is to remember new things.

Thus, cognitive processes are a complex system of mental phenomena that ensure the full existence of a person and his relationship with the outside world.

Thinking is a socially conditioned, inextricably linked with speech, mental process of searching and discovering something essentially new, a process of mediated and generalized reflection of reality in the course of its analysis and synthesis. Thinking arises on the basis of practical activity from sensory knowledge and goes far beyond its limits.

Sensory cognition and thinking

Cognitive activity begins with sensations and perceptions, and then a transition to thinking can occur. However, any, even the most developed, thinking always maintains a connection with sensory knowledge, that is, with sensations, perceptions and ideas. Mental activity receives all its material from only one source - from sensory knowledge. Through sensations and perceptions, thinking is directly connected with the outside world and is its reflection. The correctness (adequacy) of this reflection is continuously

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is verified in the course of practice, in the course of the practical transformation of nature and society.

The sensory picture of the world that our sensations and perceptions give us every day is necessary, but not sufficient for its deep, comprehensive knowledge. In this sensory picture of the reality directly observed by us, the most complex interactions of various objects, events, phenomena, etc., their causes and consequences, and mutual transitions into each other are almost not dissected. It is simply impossible to unravel this tangle of dependencies and connections, which appears in our perception in all its colorfulness and spontaneity, with the help of sensory knowledge alone. For example, the feeling of warmth given by a hand touching a body ambiguously characterizes the thermal state of the latter. This sensation is determined, firstly, by the thermal state of the given object and, secondly, by the state of the person himself (in the second case, everything depends on which bodies - warmer or colder - the person touched before). Already in this simplest example, both of these dependencies appear for sensory cognition as one undifferentiated whole. In perception, only the general, summary result of the interaction of the subject (person) with the cognizable object is given. But in order to live and act, one must first of all know what external objects are in themselves, that is, objectively, regardless of how they appear to a person, and in general, regardless of whether they are cognizable or not.

Since within the framework of sensory cognition alone it is impossible to fully dissect such a general, total, direct effect of the interaction of a subject with a cognizable object, a transition from sensations and perceptions to thinking is necessary. In the course of thinking, further, deeper knowledge of the external world is realized. As a result, it is possible to dismember and unravel the most complex interdependencies between objects, events, and phenomena. Let's use the same simple example with the definition of the thermal state of a body. Thanks to thinking, it becomes possible to separate and abstract each of the two indicated dependencies from each other. This is achieved through mediated cognition. The dependence on the state of the person determining the thermal state of the object is simply excluded, since the temperature of the object can be measured indirectly - using a thermometer, and not directly - through the thermal sensations of the hand touching the object. As a result, the sensory image of an object is now uniquely determined only by the object itself, that is, objectively. This is how abstract, abstract, mediated thinking works, which is, as it were, distracted from some properties of an object (for example, from the interaction of a hand with an external object) in order to gain a deeper understanding of its other properties

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(actual temperature of a given item, etc.).

In the process of thinking, using the data of sensations, perceptions and ideas, a person at the same time goes beyond the limits of sensory knowledge, that is, he begins to cognize such phenomena of the external world, their properties and relationships, which are not directly given in perceptions and therefore are not directly at all observable. For example, one of the most difficult problems of modern physics is the creation of a theory of elementary particles. But these tiny particles cannot be seen even with the most powerful modern microscope. In other words, they are not directly perceived: they cannot be seen - they can only be thought about. Thanks to abstract, abstract, mediated thinking, it was possible to prove that such invisible elementary particles still exist in reality and have certain properties. These properties of particles that are not directly observable are learned in the process of thinking, again in an indirect, not direct, i.e., indirect way.

Thus, thinking begins where sensory knowledge is no longer sufficient or even powerless. Thinking continues and develops the cognitive work of sensations, perceptions and ideas, going far beyond their limits. Comparing sensory cognition and thinking in this regard, V.I. Lenin o1. We can easily understand, for example, that an interplanetary spacecraft moving at a speed of 50,000 kilometers per second will move towards a distant star six times slower than a beam of light, whereas we can directly perceive or imagine the difference in speed of bodies moving at a speed of 300,000 kilometers per second. 1 second and 50,000 kilometers in 1 second, we are not able to. In the real cognitive activity of each person, sensory cognition and thinking continuously transform into one another and mutually condition each other.

Thinking and speech

For human mental activity, its relationship is essential not only with sensory cognition, but also with language and speech. This reveals one of the fundamental differences between the human psyche and the psyche of animals. The elementary, simplest thinking of animals always remains only visually effective; it cannot be abstract, mediated by knowledge. It deals only with directly perceived objects that are currently located

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before the eyes of the animal. Such primitive thinking operates with objects in a visually effective way and does not go beyond its limits.

Only with the advent of speech does it become possible to abstract one or another of its properties from a cognizable object and consolidate, fix the idea or concept of it in a special word. A thought acquires in a word the necessary material shell, in which it only becomes an immediate reality for other people and for ourselves. Human thinking - no matter what forms it takes - is impossible without language. Every thought arises and develops in inextricable connection with speech. The deeper and more thoroughly thought out this or that thought, the more clearly and clearly it is expressed in words, in oral and written speech. And vice versa, the more the verbal formulation of a thought is improved and honed, the clearer and more understandable this thought itself becomes.

Special observations during psychological experiments show that some schoolchildren and even adults often experience difficulties in solving a problem until they formulate their reasoning out loud. When the solvers begin to specifically and more clearly formulate and pronounce one after another the main reasoning (even if at first clearly erroneous), then such thinking out loud usually makes solving the problem easier. By formulating his thoughts out loud, for others, a person thereby formulates them for himself. Such formulation, consolidation, and recording of thoughts in words means the division of thoughts, helps to focus attention on various moments and parts of this thought and contributes to a deeper understanding. Thanks to this, detailed, consistent, systematic reasoning becomes possible, that is, a clear and correct comparison with each other of all the main thoughts that arise in the thinking process. The word, the formulation of thought, thus contains the most important necessary prerequisites for discursive, i.e., reasoning, logically dissected and conscious thinking. Thanks to the formulation and consolidation in the word, the thought does not disappear or fade away, barely having time to arise. It is firmly fixed in speech formulation - oral or even written. Therefore, there is always the opportunity, if necessary, to return to this thought again, think it over even more deeply, check it and, in the course of reasoning, correlate it with other thoughts. The formulation of thoughts in the speech process is the most important condition for their formation.

1.2. Physiological basis of thinking

Like all mental processes, thinking is an activity of the brain.

The physiological basis of thinking is temporary nerve connections (conditioned reflexes), which are formed in the cerebral cortex. These conditioned reflexes arise under the influence of second signals (words, thoughts), reflecting reality, but they necessarily arise on the basis of the first signal system (sensations, perceptions, ideas).

I.P. Pavlov wrote that “kinesthetic stimuli coming to the cortex from the speech organs are second signals, signals of signals. They represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which constitutes our superfluous, specifically human, higher thinking...”

That is, the physiological basis of thinking is brain processes at a higher level than those that serve as the basis for more elementary mental processes, such as sensation. However, at present there is no consensus on the significance and order of interaction of all physiological structures that support the thinking process. It is undeniable that the frontal lobes of the brain play a significant role in mental activity as one of the options for purposeful activity. In addition, there is no doubt about the importance of those areas of the cerebral cortex that provide gnostic (cognitive) functions of thinking. There is no doubt that the speech centers of the cerebral cortex are also involved in ensuring the thought process.

Unlike sensations, perceptions and memory, second-signal connections are more complex systems that reflect various relationships between objects and phenomena.

In thinking processes, both signaling systems are closely related to each other. The second signaling system allows for unlimited orientation in the surrounding world; through it, “the highest human adaptation - science” is created.

But the second signaling system relies on the first. If words are deprived of a certain real meaning for a person, if a person cannot correlate them with some specific objects and phenomena, then such words cease to be signals of reality. Thinking proceeds normally only with the participation of both signaling systems, but the leading role remains with the second signaling system, since the word is a signal richer in content and is associated with the processes of abstraction and generalization.

The complexity of studying the physiological foundations of thinking is explained by the fact that in practice thinking as a separate mental process does not exist. Thinking is present in all other cognitive mental processes, including perception, attention, imagination, memory, and speech. All higher forms of these processes, to a certain extent, depending on the level of their development, are associated with thinking.

Thus, thinking is a complex analytical and synthetic activity carried out by the joint work of both signaling systems. Moreover, since thinking is a reflection of reality generalized using a word, the second signaling system plays a leading role in this activity. Constant and close interaction with the first signaling system determines the inextricable connection of the generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, with sensory knowledge of the objective world through sensations, perceptions, ideas.

The concept of thinking and its classification

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The thinking process and its results are, of course, interconnected. The results of mental activity - concepts, knowledge - are themselves included in the thinking process, enrich it and determine its further course. Arising as a result of thinking, concepts themselves are included in it. Thinking occurs in concepts. The process of thinking is at the same time the movement of knowledge in it; this is what constitutes the meaningful side of thinking. The point, then, is, of course, not about excluding the results of mental activity from consideration, but about ensuring that they appear in psychological research as an effective expression of the process, and not just as something given, ready-made. At the same time, the very course of the process is revealed in the study through the relationships of those products that it produces on its various floors.

A correct understanding of the position about thinking as a process presupposes that thinking is understood as the activity of a subject interacting with the objective world. Thinking is a process because it is a continuous interaction between a person and an object.

Types of thinking.

Psychological science, in the course of its historical development, gradually separated from philosophy, so it is no coincidence that the attention of psychologists, first of all, came to those types of thinking that initially occupied the attention of philosophers. This is theoretical, reasoning thinking. One of the greatest philosophers, R. Descartes, put forward the formula “I think, therefore I exist.” If we leave aside the philosophical meaning of the formula and consider it only in a specific psychological sense, then it becomes obvious that this formula clearly puts thinking at the forefront of a person’s mental life, considering thinking a sign of human existence: nothing, according to the author, so convincingly proves human existence as an act of thinking. So, reasoning thinking was distinguished, verbal-logical thinking

. This thinking still stands out today as one of the main types of thinking, characterized by the use of concepts, logical constructions, existing, functioning on the basis of language, linguistic means. However, modern psychology does not consider this type of thinking as the only one.

Visual-effective thinking

also exists in higher animals. It was systematically studied by such scientists as I.P. Pavlov, V. Keller, N.N. Ladygina-Kots and others. The main characteristic of visual-effective thinking is reflected in the name: the solution of the problem is carried out with the help of a real transformation of the situation, with the help of an observable active act. This type of thinking is widely represented among people engaged in real production work, the result of which is the creation of any specific material product.

, visual-figurative thinking stands out as an independent type.

. The functions of imaginative thinking are associated with imagining situations and changes in them that a person wants to obtain as a result of his activities that transform the situation, with the specification of general provisions. With the help of figurative thinking, the whole variety of different factual characteristics of an object is more fully recreated. The image can capture the simultaneous vision of an object from several points of view. A very important feature of imaginative thinking is the establishment of unusual, “incredible” combinations of objects and their properties. In contrast to visual-effective thinking, with visual-figurative thinking the situation is transformed only in terms of the image.

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Intelligence

When characterizing a person’s thinking, they primarily imply his intellectual abilities

, i.e. those abilities that ensure a person’s “inclusion” in a fairly wide range of activities and situations. These intellectual abilities of a person are primarily associated with such characteristics as:

“mental development” and;

"intelligence".

Under mental development

is understood as the totality of both knowledge, skills, and mental actions formed in the process of acquiring these skills and knowledge.
The most general characteristic of the level of mental development is the preparedness of the functioning of thinking within the limits of the age-related socio-psychological standard
(SPN).
That is, the level of mental development should reflect the most typical, general, characteristic features of mental activity for a given society, relating to both the volume and quality of knowledge and skills, and the stock of certain mental actions. The level of mental development achieved by a person depends on his intellectual abilities. Intelligence (or general mental ability) is not the sum of knowledge and mental operations, but what contributes to their successful assimilation. If intelligence is a condition for the acquisition of knowledge and skills, then mental development characterizes primarily the content, methods and forms of thinking. Intelligence
is a relatively stable structure of abilities, which are based on processes that ensure the processing of information of different quality and its conscious assessment.
Intellectual qualities
are personality qualities that predetermine the characteristics of the functioning of the intellect.
In practice, the diagnosis of mental development arose as intelligence testing and developed in this direction throughout the first half of the twentieth century. It has even become quite common to use the Stanford-Binet IQ test as a “generalized” symbol of intelligence and level of mental development. Intelligence quotient (IQ)
is a quantitative indicator indicating the overall level of development of an individual’s thinking compared to the sample on which the intelligence test was standardized.

Mental emotional processes

Let's consider each process separately.

Feelings

Feeling is a human emotional process that reflects a subjective evaluative attitude towards abstract or real objects. Feelings manifest differently among people because they are influenced by their own set of individual traits and personality traits. Necessary for communication, friendship and understanding of other people.

Properties of feelings:

Emotions

Emotions reflect a subjective evaluative attitude towards objects, phenomena, situations and people. With the help of will, a person can evoke any emotion that he deems necessary.

The properties of emotions completely coincide with the properties of feelings.

Stress

Stress is a set of adaptive reactions of the psyche to stressors.

There is positive (eustress) and negative (distress) stress. The difference is in intensity: the more of it in the psyche, the worse.

Affects

Affects are emotional processes of an explosive nature. In many cases they are considered a negative manifestation of the psyche, but in a threatening situation they can save lives.

The concept and essence of thinking

Definition 1

Thinking is an intellectual phase in which the brain processes information in order to form a subsequent judgment about an object, phenomenon or situation.

In psychology, thinking is considered as a sequential chain of elements for a person’s processing of certain information.

One of the main features of thinking is its indirect nature and generalizing essence.

The indirect nature of thinking lies in the fact that the individual is not able to think outside of concepts and images. An object or phenomenon is known, as it were, indirectly, through those properties that are known and understandable. Understanding the unknown is carried out through the known.

Thinking is based on the individual’s sensory experience, which consists of sensations, perceptions and ideas. In addition, a person’s existing theoretical knowledge is used in thinking.

Note 1

Thus, indirect knowledge of an object or phenomenon is indirect knowledge. Accordingly, thinking does not involve the acquisition of new knowledge, it consists in the processing and processing of existing knowledge.

The generalizing essence of thinking comes from the first property and lies in comprehension through interrelation with the known.

Generalization as the knowledge of what is essential and general in the objects of the surrounding reality is possible due to the fact that the properties of almost all objects are interrelated with each other. Thus, the general is found in the concrete and separate, but is manifested in the particular.

The generalizations that an individual receives through thinking are expressed by speech (language, words). The verbal expression of a meaningful thing relates not only to a specific object, but also to a group of objects. In addition, images, ideas and perceptions can be generalized. The only limitation that may hinder mental generalization is the lack of clarity. At the same time, verbal generalization is limitless.

Basic signs of thinking

1. The connection between thinking and sensory knowledge. Thinking is closely related to sensory knowledge of reality, which is provided by sensations and perception. A sensory picture of the world, built on the basis of our sensations and perceptions, is necessary, but not sufficient for its deep and comprehensive knowledge: sensations give us information about the individual properties of objects and phenomena; perception is a reflection of the external properties of a holistic, undivided object or phenomenon. Both processes give us specific, subjective information about objects, do not allow us to identify the most complex interactions and interrelations of the internal properties of objects and phenomena hidden from direct observation, as well as the interrelations of objects, events, phenomena that make up the surrounding reality, their causes and consequences, mutual transitions into each other. friend.

Sensory cognition is subjective and largely depends on the individual characteristics of a person.

2. Thinking is indirect cognition. In order to correctly organize his activities, a person needs objective, that is, information that does not depend on the individual characteristics of the person himself, about the state and properties of objects in reality, for example, the temperature of milk in a bottle for feeding a baby. Thanks to thinking, it becomes possible, as it were, to separate (abstract) the properties of an object from the individual characteristics of the person cognizing these properties. This is achieved through indirect cognition.

The essence of indirect cognition is that we are able to make judgments about the properties or characteristics of objects or phenomena without direct contact with them by analyzing indirect information.

Thus, mediation is a feature of thinking that ensures objectivity

our knowledge.

3. Thinking has a generalizing, abstract nature of cognition. Sensory cognition is always concrete cognition, since we reflect the properties of real objects and phenomena at the moment of their action on the senses. In order to anticipate the results of one’s activities and behavior, in order to learn new things about objects and phenomena that are inaccessible to direct perception, specific individual knowledge is not enough. A person, on the basis of a single experience, generalizes individual facts and, based on these generalizations, draws conclusions regarding other individual objects and facts of the same kind. In thinking there is a transition from the individual to the general and from the general again to the individual.

Thus, a generalized reflection of reality

- this is a reflection of the general in objects and phenomena of the real world and the application of generalizations to individual objects and phenomena.

In the process of thinking, using the data of sensations, perceptions and ideas, a person goes beyond the limits of sensory knowledge, that is, he can cognize such phenomena of the external world, their properties and relationships, which in ordinary cases cannot be perceived and observed by a person.

Thus, the abstraction (abstraction) of cognition

real reality is a feature of thinking that allows one to cognize directly non-perceivable objects of reality and their properties.

4. Thinking is aimed at solving various problems and tasks, searching and discovering new things. In real life, a person constantly has to solve certain tasks and problems . Thinking is always associated with the appearance of a problem. The occurrence of a problem means that there is something new and unknown for that person or humanity as a whole. Discovering new knowledge and solving problems is a function of thinking.

Definition. A problem is a situation in which previously acquired knowledge is not enough to carry out a particular activity (practical, educational, scientific, professional) and the need for new knowledge arises.

To solve a problem, a person clarifies the conditions and formulates a task and a question , the answer to which is the goal of thinking. By answering the question of a problem, a person discovers something new and previously unknown, either only for him (for example, when solving a mathematical problem from a textbook and conducting laboratory work), or for all of humanity (solving a scientific problem). In the process of solving a problem, modification and transformation of the available initial information occurs.

Thus, the search and discovery of something new is a feature of thinking, which consists in a processed and significant modification of known information and the acquisition of new knowledge.

5. Thinking is closely related to speech. This reveals an important difference between human thinking and the thinking of animals: the thinking of animals, even the most “intelligent,” does not occur in speech form. Only thanks to speech does a person’s thinking become indirect, generalized and abstract, since it becomes possible to distract (separate) its properties from an object, consolidating and fixing them with the help of words. A thought receives some material shell in a word and in this form becomes part of the real world and can be transferred to another person. Every thought arises and develops in inextricable connection with speech. The deeper and more thoroughly a thought is thought out, the more clearly and clearly it is expressed in oral or written speech, because “he who thinks clearly, expresses clearly.” And vice versa, the more carefully the verbal formulation of a thought is honed, the more understandable the thought itself is.

Thoughts formulated and enshrined in words do not disappear or fade away, but are firmly fixed in speech form (written or oral), so there is always the opportunity to return to a particular thought, check it and clarify it. Thanks to speech, detailed, consistent, systematic reasoning becomes possible. Reasoning-based, logically dissected, conscious thinking is called discursive thinking

Thus , the connection between thinking and speech

- the fifth feature of thinking as a mental process.

It must be borne in mind that speech and thinking are closely related, however, these are different mental processes.

Differences between speech and thinking:

1) Firstly

, the same thought can be expressed in different words, and not only in speech, but also with the help of other symbols, for example, mathematical formulas.

2) Secondly

, the solution to some problems can also occur non-verbally, for example, discovery through “insight”.

3) Third

, the initial stages of thinking (visual-effective thinking in an infant) and the thinking of animals proceed without the participation of speech.

4) Fourth

, speech devoid of thought is possible (borderline states - sleep, hallucinations; painful states - delirium).

In foreign and domestic psychology, in connection with the study of the thinking process, the concept of intelligence is introduced.

Definition. Intelligence is a set of the most general mental abilities that provide a person with success in solving various figurative and verbal problems.

Although intelligence is one of the most studied psychological concepts, there are many differences in its understanding. Some researchers consider intelligence to be some general mental ability, others believe that this concept combines ideas about various mental abilities.

2. Types of thinking

Psychology uses four main classifications of types of thinking , built on different bases.

I. Based on the content of reflections, they are divided into

— visually effective,

— visually figurative

— verbal-logical

(abstract-logical) thinking.

At the same time, these types of thinking are genetic stages of the development of thinking in ontogenesis.

Visual-effective thinking

- this is a type of thinking the content of which is the practical transformation of reality. Visual-effective thinking is “manual” thinking, when the solution to a problem is carried out in the process of practical actions. Sometimes this type of thinking is called “external”, since it is carried out not in the mind, but on the external plane. This type of thinking prevails in children under 3 years of age, as well as in some types of professional activities and in everyday life.

Visual-figurative thinking

- This is thinking in images.
This type of thinking is directly related to the perception of the surrounding reality. Images can be of varying degrees of generality: for young children they are specific and incomplete, for older preschoolers and junior schoolchildren they have a generalized, schematized nature. This type of thinking is actively developing and prevails in preschool children. The thinking of older preschoolers and younger schoolchildren is often called figurative-schematic.
Verbal-logical (abstract) thinking

- This is thinking with the help of speech, rational thinking with the use of concepts.

II. According to the nature of human activity, thinking is distinguished

— theoretical

(aimed at creating theories, concepts, models);

— practical

(aimed at transforming reality)
.
III. According to the degree of development, thinking is divided into

— discursive

(expanded, based on reasoning);

— intuitive

(thinking using the “insight” method).

IV. Thinking is classified according to the degree of novelty

— productive

(creative - thinking associated with the creation of fundamentally new solutions and knowledge);

— reproductive

(thinking associated with the use of known solutions and knowledge).

3. Basic forms of thinking

There are three main forms of thinking: concept, judgment

and
inference
.

1) Concept. Definition. A concept is a reflection of the general and essential properties of objects or phenomena.

Depending on the degree of generalization, it is customary to distinguish between general and individual concepts.

General concepts

are called those that cover a whole class of homogeneous objects or phenomena bearing the same name. For example, “person”, “animal”, “emotions”, “disease”, etc. General concepts reflect the characteristics characteristic of all objects that are united by the corresponding concept.

Single concepts

are called those that designate any one object. For example: “Moscow”, “Volga”, “Peter”. Single concepts represent a body of knowledge about any one subject, but at the same time they reflect properties that are included in another, more general concept. For example, the concept of “Volga” includes the fact that it is a river that flows through the territory of Russia; the concept of “Peter” includes the fact that he is a male person, etc.

Concepts are based on our knowledge of objects and phenomena of reality, therefore, by expanding our knowledge, we clarify already acquired concepts and acquire new ones.

There are two ways to master concepts

: specially organized
training and personal experience .
In the process of systematic learning, students acquire general concepts ; in the process of acquiring individual experience, individual concepts . It is important to remember that any general concepts arise only on the basis of individual ones, therefore, the richer the student’s individual experience (the wider the scope of individual concepts and knowledge about the properties and characteristics of individual objects), the more successful the systematic learning will be. The natural way of forming concepts is the movement from the particular to the general, that is, through generalization.

Development of generalizations

and the assimilation
of elementary concepts
is the main line in the development of a preschooler’s thinking; it is the basis of verbal communication and the assimilation of knowledge generalized in the historical experience of mankind.

Functions of thinking

The functions of thinking are presented in quite a variety of ways. Among them there are four main ones:

understanding
problem solving
goal setting
reflection

Understanding means revealing the essence of objects and phenomena. Understanding something new is achieved through the interaction of old information with newer information.

In cases where an individual is unable to achieve the goal he has set, when a problem arises in achieving a result, then the thinking process begins to work in the person’s brain. When the thinking process begins, a person begins to analyze, compare, etc. in order to solve the problem that has arisen. The individual cuts off unsuccessful solution options and leans towards more suitable ones.

Goal setting is understood as the process of producing new ideas, that is, the formation of future actions.

The function of reflection in the thinking process is expressed in the fact that the individual directs his actions to comprehend and analyze new knowledge.