Dilemma: What is This? (Psychology Library)

What is a dilemma?

The word Dilemma takes its roots from the Latin language. This concept consists of two words: di (two) and lemma (judgment, opinion, possibility). That is, it can be literally translated as “double opportunity” or “dual opinion.”

The origin of the word “dilemma” is based on the situation of choosing one of two. But there is a choice from a larger number of options, you will say, and you will be absolutely right. Such situations received appropriate names: trilemma, polylemma, and so on. However, we are all more familiar with the word dilemma, since it is most often used in everyday life.

In fact, a dilemma is not even a choice, but a kind of analysis of prerequisites. From a scientific point of view, the dilemma does not give much importance to choice. It is the problems of preconditions that are considered here. But since they both lead in the same direction, the choice does not matter in principle.

Consider a classic example: there is an opinion A and an opinion B. Both opinions lead to result B. A dilemma arises: which opinion will be the most correct? The question is not considered here: what to choose, but rather an analysis of opinions and prerequisites is carried out to identify the most correct result.

It doesn't matter what you choose in a controversial situation. The result will ultimately be the same. In other words, a dilemma is an either-or situation with a single result. Dilemma questions can touch on very subtle aspects of life.

For example, according to the samurai code of honor - bushido, dying on the battlefield is considered a great honor. If a warrior in a life or death situation chooses the former, the outcome will be no different from death. By choosing life, he dooms himself and his family to eternal shame. Having chosen life, he in fact chooses death, only a little different. Thus, there is no importance of choice in the dilemma. There is the importance of the truth of an opinion or premise.

What is a dilemma? The definition in simple words can be found in the dictionary. It states that a dilemma is a choice between two mutually exclusive premises or conclusions. Or simply put: when there is no third option. One way or another, a dilemma is always a choice. The choice in the dilemma could be:

Important;
Imaginary;
Unimportant;
Obvious;
Conscious;
Unconscious.

You can talk endlessly about the importance of choice, but sooner or later you will have to make it. Every day in the world, people are faced with a dilemma when they have to make a choice between two. This affects almost all areas of human life:

Sport;
Job;
Business;
Music;
Education.

The question of choice also affects the spiritual spheres, forcing one to decide on religious views and worldview.

Types of dilemmas

Depending on what area of life the problem of choice affects, the dilemma takes on a certain direction. It is generally accepted that there are five main types of dilemmas:

1. Ethical.

2. Moral.

3. Moral.

4. Psychological.

5. Prisoner's dilemma.

They all come down to a choice of mutually exclusive premises. The only difference is the identity of the choice. Let's look at them in order of importance.

A dilemma in psychology is represented by mutually exclusive choices. A person will be faced with questions of either/or psychological choice throughout his life. This question can arise in almost any situation when you need to overcome yourself.

Most often, a person makes this choice unconsciously, on a subconscious level. But in any case, a person will be fully aware of the consequences of his choice. This can manifest itself in various emotions:

Anger;
Shame;
Sadness;
Self-confidence.

One way or another, the dilemma in matters of human psychology comes up very often. A person may not even realize that he is faced with a choice. But in any case, he will do it.

Ethical dilemma also relates to psychological choices. But here the question is in the interaction of people with each other. Choice is most often represented by a question of the relationship of one person to another or in the determination of a specific action. This issue may involve moral and ethical values.

However, it is usually characterized within the framework of acceptable behavior within a certain circle. An ethical dilemma can arise during the interaction of two different social groups or in a professional relationship: specialist-client.

Typically, the choice in an ethical dilemma involves accepting the rules of the game. In this case, you either act in a closed system in accordance with the rules, or without taking them into account.

To solve an ethical dilemma, the prisoner's dilemma and game theory can be used. The Prisoner's Dilemma is a theory that states that players will not interact with each other even if it is in their best interest to do so. It is also called the prisoner's dilemma.

This is a fundamental position from game theory. The theory itself describes the rules of behavior of players in a closed system (game). This is true of any closed system with clearly established rules and a set of possible actions.

Game theory can mathematically describe almost any situation and predict its development. The prisoner's dilemma in this theory is necessary to describe the behavior of two players from different teams, representing different interests, but having a common goal. The bottom line is this: players from different teams will choose betrayal over cooperation, even if the latter leads to mutual benefit.

Players in this system are only interested in their own benefit. Therefore, cooperation for players is considered unacceptable, due to the benefit of the opponent.

To solve the prisoner's dilemma, we can consider moral dilemmas. The moral issue is the choice between acting according to established rules or resisting the system. This dilemma is very similar to an ethical one. However, if in an ethical dilemma the choice is made between playing by the rules or without them, then the moral one assumes that the rules have already been accepted, but in order to perform the action it is necessary to step over them.

There is a special kind of dilemma - a moral one. A moral dilemma is making a choice according to personal preference. That is, when a person is faced with a choice: to do as he likes or as he should. Often what is needed in this matter is determined by the imposed rules of the game. On the other hand, morality is defined as part of the rules, only more acceptable for a particular player. In other words, a moral dilemma is a choice between “I want” and “I must.”

To better understand the types of dilemmas and their relationships, I propose to consider each using examples from life.

Moral dilemmas methodological development

Quest "Moral Dilemmas"

Goal: to familiarize students with situations of moral choice and the scheme of the indicative basis for the action of moral and ethical assessment as a basis for the analysis of moral dilemmas; organizing a discussion to identify solutions and arguments from the participants in the discussion.

Age: 11-15 years.

Academic disciplines: humanities (literature, history, social studies, etc.).

Form of assignment: group work of students.

Materials: text of the moral dilemma, a list of questions that set the outline of the indicative basis for the action of moral and ethical assessment, for students and teachers.

Description of the task: the class is divided into groups of three, in which they are asked to discuss the hero’s behavior and give reasons for their assessment. Next, having united in two groups, the guys exchange opinions and discuss all the arguments for and against. Then two groups are again combined until the class is divided into two large groups. At this final stage (using the board), a presentation of the arguments is made and a summary is made - which arguments are more convincing and why.

Option: holding a discussion. Students in groups are asked in advance to take a position of supporting or condemning the hero of the situation and discuss their arguments.

To structure the position of students, a diagram of the indicative basis for the action of moral and ethical assessment for analyzing the situation is proposed (A. I. Podolsky, O. A. Karabanova, 2000). The diagram presents questions, the answers to which will help analyze the proposed situation:

1. What is happening in this situation?

2. Who are the participants in the situation?

3. What are the interests and goals of the participants in the situation? Do the goals and interests of the participants in the situation coincide or contradict each other?

4. Do the participants' actions violate a moral norm(s)? If yes, what exactly is the norm? (Name the norm.)

5. Who can be harmed by a violation of the norm? (If different norms are violated, then who will suffer from violating one norm, and who will suffer from violating another?)

6. Who is the norm violator? (If several norms are violated, then who is the violator of each of them?)

7. What can participants do in this situation? (Please list several behaviors.)

8. What consequences can this or that action (behavior) have for the participants?

9. What feelings (guilt, shame, pride, compassion, resentment, etc.) do the characters experience?

10. What should each of its participants do in this situation? What would you do in their place?

Instructions: the lesson is devoted to situations of moral choice. Such situations are called moral dilemmas. Their peculiarity is that students need to make a choice in a situation where there is not one uniquely correct decision, but there are different decisions that take into account different interests. The teacher reads the text and asks students to answer questions.

The teacher, if the students’ answers are presented in writing, needs to pay attention to the reasoning behind the action (i.e., answer the question “why?”). The answer should indicate the principle underlying the decision. The teacher should provoke students to voice different points of view on the situation with the obligatory argumentation of their position, and also focus students’ attention on the ambiguity of a particular solution to the problem.

Evaluation criteria:

correspondence of answers to the levels of development of moral consciousness;
the ability to listen to the arguments of other participants in the discussion and take them into account in one’s position;
analysis of students' arguments in accordance with the level of development of moral consciousness.

14 situations are presented - moral dilemmas, which are devoted to different contexts of interaction: 7 - situations of interaction "adolescent - peer" and 6 - situations of interaction "adolescent - adult", another situation is an example...

Examples of tasks

Dilemmas with the context of “adolescent-peer” interaction

1. Kolya and Petya worked in the garden in the summer - picking strawberries. Kolya wanted to use the money he earned to buy a sports watch, which he had been eyeing for a long time. Kolya comes from a low-income family, so his parents cannot buy him such a watch. Petya wants to use the money he earns to improve his computer.

Kolya is significantly inferior to Petya in strength and agility, and he rests more often, so Petya picked a lot more strawberries. In the evening the foreman came to pay the guys for the work done. I counted the boxes of strawberries collected by both guys. He counted out the amount they had earned and asked, turning to Petya: “Well, guys, should we pay equally, or did someone collect more, and is he entitled to more?”

Petya sees that if he says that he has collected more, then Kolya will not have enough money for a watch. Petya knows that Kolya dreamed of this watch and will be very upset if he cannot buy it.

What do you think Petya should answer and why? What should be a fair distribution of the money earned and why?

One student accidentally hit a classmate who was an outcast in the class. Obviously, this was the last straw in the outcast's patience. He got angry and severely beat the unwitting offender. How can you evaluate the action of an outcast and why?
Yura broke the VCR. When the parents discovered this, only Yura's younger brother was at home. His parents thought he did it and punished him. Yura, returning home and realizing what had happened, remained silent. Did the older brother do the right thing and why? What should he have done?
Two classmates received different grades for the test (“3” and “4”), although their work was completely identical, and they did not copy one from the other. There is a very high risk that their strict teacher would rather lower a grade than a grade of three. However, the friend who received a C, without the other’s knowledge, approaches the teacher with both notebooks. Is the girl doing the right thing towards her friend and why?
Volodya dreamed of a real soccer ball, but his parents refused to buy one. One day he saw just such a ball from his classmate, who was not interested in football. He had a wealthy family, and his father wanted his son to start playing football. One day, after cleaning the classroom, Volodya saw a ball forgotten by a classmate, and since there was no one around, he could not resist and took it for himself. Did Volodya do the right thing and why?
Nikolai's close friend asks him to lend him money. Nikolai knows that his friend uses drugs and will most likely spend money on them. When asked why he needs money, his friend does not answer. Nikolai gives him money. Did Nikolai do the right thing and why? What should he have done?
The teacher fell ill, the students decided that they would be dismissed from the last lesson (as has happened more than once). They were about to leave, they were already in the locker room when someone brought the news that there would be a substitution and they couldn’t leave. Most of the class left, but two students remained because they had to correct their grades in this subject. Students who skipped class received bad grades. If everyone left, one would think that the class did not know about the replacement, and there would be no punishment. Did those guys who stayed in the class do the right thing, and why?

Dilemmas with the context of interaction "adolescent - adult"

8. The teacher urgently needed to leave the classroom during a test, and she asked Katya to watch the students so that no one cheated. Some guys, of course, cheated. When the teacher returned to class, she asked Katya if anyone had cheated (it is known that they will give a bad mark for this). The teacher trusts Katya. What should Katya do (what should she answer) and why?

9. The physics teacher was explaining a very complex topic. At the next lesson, before calling anyone to the board, he invited someone who had some knowledge of this topic to come out. Nobody came out. Then the teacher began to call himself. He had to give thirteen twos before a girl was called to the board and told everything. She was given an A. After class, her classmates attacked her and began to scold her for not immediately volunteering to answer at the blackboard and for letting the class down. What should the girl do in this situation and why?

The teacher promised the student to correct the C in the next quarter if he would take additional classes and work on those topics for which he had previously received bad grades. The student regularly attended extra classes because he really wanted to get a good grade. But at the end of the quarter, the teacher said that he could not correct the grade, since the student did not study well enough and simply did not deserve a B, and the teacher does not have the right to give grades undeservedly. Did the teacher do the right thing and why?
The class teacher asked an excellent student to study with a classmate who was lagging behind. An excellent student goes to preparatory courses for college, and she has no time. She wants to refuse, especially since the classmate with whom she has to study is not very pleasant to her. What should an excellent student do and why?

12. At the grocery store, the seller made a mistake and gave Petya too much change. Noticing this, Petya did not tell the seller about it, but decided to buy a gift for his mother with this money. Did Petya do the right thing and why?

13. Dima received a D in algebra and is deciding whether to tear out a page from his diary. After all, if his parents find out, they won’t let him go to the concert, but he really wants to go, since this is his favorite band and he’s been waiting for this concert for so long. What should Dima do and why?

14. A famous hockey player, brought up by a Russian hockey school, having improved his professional skills in Russian clubs, signed a lucrative contract and went to play in the NHL. He soon became one of the highest paid players in the league. He founded his own fund to help sick American children in the USA, especially since charitable activities in the USA can significantly reduce taxes, but this does not exist in Russia. How can you evaluate the behavior of this athlete?

Dilemma: examples from life

Let's consider classic examples of dilemmas from life to clearly understand what is described. Let us describe a situation in which there is a reason (P), the first prerequisite (A) and the second (B), as well as the result - C.

So, in my youth I had a cat. A good, beautiful cat, but with one drawback - he always shit in the wrong place. I had a dilemma: the cat was pooping in the wrong litter box and I had to do something about it (P).

Two prerequisites arose: either train the cat to use the litter box (A) or give it to other people (B).
In both situation A and situation B, result C will be achieved - the cat will stop pooping in the wrong place. This is a classic dilemma in which the result is achieved by two interchangeable premises. But in any case, the desired result is achieved. If you're interested in how it all ended, I'll tell you. The cat was eventually litter box trained. True, it took a lot of effort. But that is another story. For now, I will describe examples of different types of dilemmas.

Moral Dilemma: Real Life Examples

Examples of a moral dilemma can be given by situations in which it is necessary to step over certain rules.

For example, the most trivial example would be a crime. Let's say you need to earn a certain amount of money. They can be earned (A), or they can be stolen (B). In both cases, result (B) is achieved.

A more complicated example: you are a school student and you have a lesson. You need to leave early. You can do this according to the rules by asking to take time off from class (A), or you can leave on your own (B). In any case, result B will be achieved.

As is clear from the example, in a moral dilemma a person decides what is closer to him: following the rules or achieving a goal. For example, the very thought of theft disgusts me. I even cross the road only when the light is green, regardless of whether there are cars nearby.

However, I admit that in the absence of choice, for example, in a situation of military operations and the impossibility of getting what you want legally, the rules established by society and the law can be broken.

Ethical Dilemmas: Examples

The easiest way to explain this concept is to give examples of ethical dilemmas at work. Ethical dilemmas often appear in the work of a psychologist.

For example, a psychologist needs to help a client (P). He can do this according to all the rules (A), or give in to the rules for the sake of the result (B). In any case, the result will be achieved, one way or another. The opposite situation, in which it is necessary to indicate to the person the exit (P). You can do this according to all the rules (A), or behave more harshly (B). The result will be achieved in any case.

If this example is not clear, I will give a simpler one.

Imagine that you are a doctor who has learned an intimate secret of a patient. This man cheated on his pregnant wife and contracted gonorrhea. On the one hand, it is impossible to inform his wife about this - this is at odds with the principle of maintaining medical confidentiality (for disclosing it, by the way, the doctor can receive a real sentence).

On the other hand, if this man infects his wife, this will have an extremely negative impact on their unborn child. What to do in such a situation? How to protect your baby? After all, a doctor’s job is to help people. In this case, P, that is, the desired result, is help, and the options for achieving this result are the disclosure of medical confidentiality or the construction of a treatment system in such a way that the man certainly cannot harm his wife and child.

Prisoner's dilemma

To consider the prisoner's dilemma, the political situation in the world immediately comes to mind. Let's take a trite look at the relations between Russia and the United States. Let's say it is necessary to give a qualitative impetus to the economies of countries.

It is clear that with the mutual assistance of these countries to each other, their economic situation can reach much greater positions in a short time. But, since they are rivals in this game, and each represents their own interests, it is not profitable for them to interact, since this will lead to the prosperity of the opponent. Even if the benefits of cooperation far outweigh their disadvantages, players will try their best to play individually.

If you enter “prisoner’s dilemma: real-life examples” into the search bar in your browser, the search engine will not reward you with a large number of interesting and accessible results. This is strange, because such a dilemma is very common in everyday life.

For example, you and your colleague were given the same tasks and promised a bonus to the first person to submit a report. Obviously, if you combine your efforts, you will save a lot of time, and one way or another, get the job done. But the desire to be the first to receive the reward does not give you the opportunity to cooperate. Therefore, you are more likely to try to overtake your colleague than to cooperate with him.

Moral Dilemma Questions

See also: Selfishness - good or bad?
Psychology articles:

When Morality Becomes Obvious: Ethical Dilemmas in Counseling Psychology

An ethical dilemma in the practice of a psychologist is not simply a complex situation in which the personal needs of the psychologist or the organization where he works and ethical principles collide. For example, to recruit clients, a novice psychologist is offered to offer discounts when the client pays for several consultations at once or conduct initial consultations for free. This is a situation in which, even if the psychologist chooses to follow ethical professional principles, the decision of the psychologist may lead to adverse consequences for other parties involved.

Anastasia Armashova, psychologist-consultant at the Center for Corporate Training and Consulting, Yaroslavl State University named after P.G. Demidova, Ph.D. in psychology, talks about the results of her dissertation research on “ethical vigilance”—the ability of a psychologist to recognize an ethical dilemma in a professional situation and treat it differently.

Often such situations arise directly during interaction with the client. The psychologist does not have the opportunity to prepare for the initial consultation. As a rule, he does not know in which field he will work: what personal characteristics the client will have, what problem he will have and in what psychological state he will come. Also, due to the severity of the situation, clients do not always disclose all the details to the consultant. The specialist understands that he is working in a deficit of information about the full picture of the circumstances, the parties affected, etc. High uncertainty in a consulting situation and the need to make a decision “here and now” makes an ethical dilemma not just a case of the specialist’s absolute authorship in his choice, but also involves high emotional stress.

A consulting psychologist describes his experiences at the beginning of working with ethically complex cases: “As a rule, in such difficult situations, clients first raise the issue of confidentiality, we discuss the principle of the ethical code, and I explain in detail how a specialist should act. Even then, this feeling of uncertainty arises, you understand that there is a difficult consultation ahead, a difficult situation in which, most likely, you will have to make a difficult decision, but you don’t know what it will be, you don’t know the consequences.”

At the Department of Consulting Psychology YARSU named after P.G. Demidov, we conducted a study of the perception of ethical dilemmas by psychologists-consultants. We collected cases from practice that psychologists considered complex ethical situations and ethical dilemmas and then showed two cases to the study participants:

We wanted to describe the peculiarities of a specialist’s perception of such situations—the ability to recognize an ethical field or dilemma in a situation. We have designated this ability as “ethical vigilance.” We were able to identify three levels of its development: rational-pragmatic, situational-emotional, personally responsible.

At the rational-pragmatic level, the psychologist does not perceive the situation as an ethical dilemma, evaluates it from one position and does not take into account the entire context of the situation. The consultants treated the case as a professional problem that was interesting to solve, or as a situation whose circumstances required a certain normative behavior. Here, choice and responsibility for its consequences were not assumed in principle, since the consultants treated a possible decision as forced and as an obligation.

Examples of reactions of consulting psychologists to cases:

At the situational-emotional level of ethical vigilance, the perception of a situation as an ethical dilemma is influenced by the context of its circumstances. That is, the consultant does not recognize an ethical conflict in all cases.

Psychologists emotionally experienced the impossibility of making the optimal decision, analyzed the situation from different angles, and predicted negative consequences.

Examples of reactions of psychologists-consultants:

At the personally responsible level, an ethical dilemma is recognized by a specialist, regardless of the context of the circumstances of the situation. What is distinctive about this level is not just the emotional experience of the inevitability of the negative consequences of the decision made, but also the awareness of the psychologist’s personal responsibility for it. The situation is not perceived as a complex professional task, where the choice is dictated by circumstances. The consultant perceives it as a personal choice, treats the decision as significant for the development of his personality (“how should I live with this decision”).

Decision making is accompanied by a process of self-determination, reflection of values regarding the circumstances of a given specific situation.

Examples of reactions of psychologists-consultants:

Treating an ethical dilemma as a personal choice, reflecting on your emotional experience in a given situation, and your responsibility for the consequences requires a resourceful state from the consultant. Rational-pragmatic perception can be a consequence not only of ethical ignorance, but also an aspect of a professional crisis or burnout. In other words, it is important for a psychologist not only to be ethically educated and know the algorithms for action in ethically controversial situations, but also to develop and maintain ethical vigilance, that is, the very ability to recognize a given situation in one’s professional activities.

Link to the study: Armashova A.B. Ethical dilemmas in the interaction between a psychologist-consultant and a client: dis. ... Candidate of Psychological Sciences: 19.00.05 / Armashova Anastasia Borisovna; [Place of defense: Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Yaroslavl State University named after. P.G. Demidova”], 2018

Sources used:

https://psichov.net/moralnaya-dilemma/
https://psyethics.ru/moral/