The concept of professional motivation in modern psychology

The concept of motive and motivation in psychology

Definitions differ in their meaning. Often they complement each other or form a complex system of behavioral reactions and choice of activity. In a simplified version, motive means the reason or motivation for a certain action.

Motivation is the driving force that serves as a product of mental activity, generated by a stable psycho-emotional state, views or worldview. It forces you to make decisions for the long term.

In psychology, motive is a narrower concept that stimulates behavioral activity and is aimed at quickly achieving a goal. Both terms were coined by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. Understanding the conceptual difference between them is important for assessing the factors that control an individual's behavior.

Psychologists have a dual meaning for motivation. On the one hand, it is a set of motives, on the other hand, it is a process of a set of actions aimed at achieving goals in the long term. Motivation is a multifactorial system that determines social or biological behavior.

Motive in psychology

The desire to achieve a specific result of activity serves as a goal and at the same time a motivating circumstance. A motive is often presented as a special emotional experience that is transformed into a directed action. Motivation is used when choosing a path.

The motive operates when making local decisions within the framework of a general direction or vector. It can be presented in the form of a speculative generalized image of material or idealistic values ​​that act as the subject of aspiration, claim, and lust.

The concept of professional motivation in modern psychology

The behavior of humans and animals has such a feature as purposeful activity. Psychologists, philosophers and biologists, as well as representatives of related sciences, have always been interested in the problem of the source of purposeful activity of humans and animals.

The basic concept that reflects the essence of the initiation of behavior and activity is the concept of need. Need in modern psychology is understood as necessity, the need of a person or animal for something, namely “in certain conditions that they lack for normal existence and development” [18, p. 465].

There are two main components in the structure of need:

1. The substantive content of a need is “the totality of those objects of material or spiritual culture with the help of which a given need can be satisfied” [18, p. 466]. The substantive content of needs “determines a person’s connection with the world around him and his dependence on it” [28, p.518]. It is also associated with the selectivity of the response of humans and animals precisely to what constitutes the subject of needs [18, p. 465].
2. Tension that arises in the presence of an urgent need. When a person experiences a need, it is always associated with the presence of “more or less painful tension, anxiety” [28, p.518], a feeling of dissatisfaction caused by a shortage of what is required [18, p.465], i.e. psychological discomfort. A person’s natural desire to get rid of this psychological discomfort becomes a source of active behavior and activity.

Based on the needs that arise, motives are formed. “If a need is a certain tension caused by the need for something, but it does not yet determine the direction of the subject’s activity, then the motive acts as an incentive to action, as a desire to satisfy the need, it is the readiness of the psyche, directing towards a certain goal” [10, pp.158-159]. Thus, motives specify ways to satisfy emerging needs and, accordingly, upcoming specific forms of behavior and types of human activity, the source of which are emerging needs: “If needs constitute the essence, the mechanism of all types of human activity, then motives act as specific manifestations of this essence.” [35, p.414].

Thus, the “input” of the motive is the need, and the “output” is the intention and motivation of a person to carry out some action or act of behavior. It should be emphasized that motives are not static, unchangeable, but dynamic formations: “In the process of performing behavioral acts, motives ... can be transformed (change), which is possible at all phases of the action, and the behavioral act is often completed not according to the original, but according to the transformed one. motivation" [29].

There are the following motivational states that stimulate directed human activity [32]: interests (motivational manifestations of an individual’s cognitive needs, inducing appropriate cognitive activity), desires (needs correlated with certain objects that allow these needs to be satisfied), drives (obsessive cravings for certain groups objects), inclinations (predominant aspirations for certain types of activities), aspirations, intentions, goals, values, etc. Sometimes regulators of behavior are considered separately - external socio-psychological factors influencing the direction of a person’s activity: “Motivators of behavior have the power encouraging one to perform certain actions or actions. Regulators also have the quality of force, but in the sense of an obstacle, limitation and control of attraction and desire. Norms, traditions, customs, rules and laws of the environment in which a person lives are, figuratively speaking, “the walls of the labyrinth” that guide and control the search for a “exit.” The “exit” motivates, and the “walls of the maze” regulate our behavior” [11].

At the same time, “any activity - be it work, knowledge, communication, etc. – multi-motivated. It is motivated not by one single motive, but by a combination of them. Some motives complement each other, some are in conflict. They either reinforce each other or distort a person’s activity, which is why he ultimately finds it difficult to determine why he acted this way and not otherwise. Moreover, many motives are not realized by a person” [32]. The entire set of motivations for human activity is called motivation .

Currently, in psychological science, the term “motivation” is used in two main meanings, which at first glance differ in meaning [29]:

• Motivation is the entire set of factors that determine, organize and direct human behavior (a system of needs, motives, goals, intentions, ideals, beliefs, etc.) [9, p.65].
• Motivation is the process of stimulation and determination, inducing human behavior and maintaining behavioral activity at a certain level at any given moment in time. In this meaning, motivation acts as “a process of mental regulation that influences the direction of activity and the amount of energy mobilized to perform this activity” [25, pp. 191-192].

A closer analysis of the listed approaches to defining the concept of motivation allows us to come to the conclusion that there is no contradiction between these approaches. The authors of the above definitions consider the same phenomenon only in different aspects: in the first case - from a structural position, in the second - as a dynamic formation. The most generalized definition, which includes both approaches, was proposed by R. Nemov: “Motivation ... can be defined as a set of reasons of a psychological nature that explain human behavior, its beginning, direction and activity” [18, p. 463]. Both motivation and regulation of human behavior and activity are always determined by one reason or another, therefore the category of cause is probably most appropriate in defining the concept of motivation.

There are several different classifications of types of motivation. The most common classification in the literature is one in which the following types of motivation are distinguished [9, pp. 67-68; 18, p.463-464]:

• Intrinsic (internally organized, dispositional) - motivation caused by internal reasons: the psychological properties of the subject, his needs, attitudes, interests, drives, etc.
• Extrinsic (externally organized, situational) – motivation caused by reasons external to the subject: living conditions, circumstances of the current situation.

In its “pure” form, motivation is rarely purely intense or extrinsic. As a rule, human behavior is determined by a combination of external and internal reasons, closely intertwined.

According to another classification, a distinction is made between positive and negative motivation of human behavior: “V.G. Aseev believes that an important feature of human motivation is its bimodal, positive-negative structure. These two modalities of impulses (in the form of striving for something and avoidance, in the form of satisfaction and suffering, in the form of two forms of influence on the personality - reward and punishment) are manifested in drives and directly realized needs - on the one hand, and in necessity - on the one hand. different” [9, p.68].

The motivation of each person is determined both by external factors and by his personal characteristics, among which the most important role is played by the motivational sphere of the individual. If motivation characterizes a person’s behavior and activity at any given moment in time and is often determined to a greater extent by the situation, then the motivational sphere of a person is a set of stable personality properties that determine his motivation in various conditions: “All incentive sources of a person’s activity are united by the concept of a motivational sphere, which includes the needs of the individual, his interests, aspirations, drives, beliefs, attitudes, ideals, intentions, as well as social roles, behavioral stereotypes, social norms, rules, life goals and values, and, finally, ideological orientations in general” [2, p. 235].

The motivational sphere of the individual is a dynamic system: “The system of values ​​and motives of the individual includes many hierarchically organized and interconnected elements. It is not rigidly specified, but is in a state of constant development and change” [27].

Thus, motivation is a complex psychological phenomenon both in structure and dynamics, which is of great importance in human life. It is motivation that underlies all human actions and deeds, and it is motivation that, first of all, determines the choices made by a person in various life situations, which ultimately shapes the characteristics of his life and destiny.

Motivation for professional activity , or professional motivation is “the action of specific motives that determine the choice of profession and the long-term performance of duties associated with this profession” [21, p. 386], or “a set of internal and external driving forces that encourage a person to work and giving this activity a direction focused on achieving certain goals” [14].

Like other types of motivation, professional motivation is influenced by external and internal factors, which can be either permanent or temporary. Therefore, professional motivation is at the same time both a relatively stable and relatively changeable, dynamic formation. Depending on the psychological characteristics of the individual and the external circumstances of his life, the professional motivation of one person can generally remain for several decades, while the professional motivation of another person can completely change in a much shorter period of time.

The general pattern is that in its development, professional motivation goes through at least several stages, each of which is characterized by its own special structure of professional motivation [2; 9; 21]:

1. The stage of choosing a profession or specialty;
2. Stage of choosing a place of work;
3. The stage of direct implementation of professional activities.

Possible stages of professional reorientation, retraining and job change (transition from one job to another) are also identified.

The implementation of a person’s labor activity is determined, to one degree or another, by the entire set of motives that influence during each of the listed stages: “motives for labor activity lead to the formation of motives for choosing a profession, and the latter lead to motives for choosing a place of work” [9, p. 270].

Professional motivation has a significant impact on the effectiveness of professional activities. The most important factor in the effectiveness of professional activity related to professional motivation is the strength of actual motives in the motivation structure. The general pattern of the influence of the strength of actual motives on the effectiveness of professional activity is that the quality of activity “is best at an average level of motivation and, as a rule, worsens when it is too low or too high” [29].

If a person has weak expression of the abilities corresponding to the activity performed, the presence of motivation “can compensate for many shortcomings in the level of development of a number of professionally important qualities and in the organization of the productive process” [2, p. 234], but weak motivation is almost impossible to compensate or make up for with anything.

However, when considering special cases, it should be taken into account that the influence of the strength of motives on the effectiveness of activity depends on the complexity of the task: “in solving easy tasks, the best success of activity is achieved with a high level of motivation, and in solving difficult ones - with its low and medium level” [25, p. .192].

The effectiveness of professional activity is influenced by the correspondence of the characteristics of the activity being carried out to the characteristics of the motivational sphere of the employee’s personality. For example, “people with a predominant motive of affiliation achieve better results in their work in cases where they work not alone, but as part of a group with whose members they have established friendly relationships” [18, p. 498]. In this example, the motive of affiliation dominates in the motivational sphere of the individual, and the conditions of professional activity make it possible to satisfy the affiliative need, i.e. There is a correspondence between the characteristics of the motivational sphere of the individual and the conditions of professional activity, which leads to an increase in labor productivity.

The most important and complex factor in the effectiveness of activity from the side of professional motivation is a person’s satisfaction with his work: “the feeling of completed work and satisfaction from this contribute to increasing labor productivity” [2, pp. 239-240]. Consequently, not only job satisfaction increases performance efficiency, but performance efficiency also increases the degree of job satisfaction, i.e. There is an interdependence between the listed variables.

Thus, professional motivation is one of the most significant factors in the effectiveness of professional activity and a person’s satisfaction with his work.

Next: Theories and types of motivation for professional activity

Types of motives

The psychological category is difficult to classify. There are an innumerable number of circumstances that motivate action. Often they do not fit into the framework of harmonious concepts. Each school of psychology develops its own system for classifying motives.

In the generally accepted view they are:

• hidden;
• obvious;
• social;
• household;
• physiological;
• biological.

Depending on the nature or focus, motives are classified according to content, origin, and duration. There are varieties distributed according to the strength of manifestation, level of awareness, and area of ​​activity.

Based on content, the following types of motives are distinguished:

• Ideological. They affect the ideological part of the personality. People are guided by such motives even at the risk of harming themselves.
• Political. They largely overlap with the previous variety. Such motives reflect the political position of the individual. They are often based on the desire for leadership, recognition, and popularity.
• Moral and ethical. They define social behavior and indicate clear boundaries of what is acceptable. This type of motive is based on generally accepted principles of morality, which are not the same in different social formations.
• Aesthetic. The most harmless, constructive category of motives. They guide the choice of profession as an artist, musician or designer.

Classification by origin (source) divides motivating factors into social, collective, and incentive. This includes work motives that are formed under the influence of professional affiliation or type of activity.

Social behavioral criteria take into account the interests and rules of the social formation to which a person belongs. Many everyday actions are subordinated to this type of motive.

Collective motivating factors involve taking into account the interests of the group to which the individual belongs. Incentive motives force you to leave your own comfort zone for the sake of achievements or striving for new heights in life.

The basis of such behavior is always a thirst for material wealth. This is the most important type of motive that forces us to learn, make discoveries and inventions. Below are 4 main generalized groups of incentives.

Internal and external

Such motivating factors are of enormous importance for choosing a goal and determining the means to achieve it. They are aimed at revealing one’s own potential and demonstrating individuality.

In psychology, a motive is an internal urge or external circumstance that encourages a certain action. The first is associated with the emotional state, ideological position, and range of interests of the individual.

Internal motives are aimed at:

• increased self-esteem;
• realization of natural abilities;
• satisfying the need for positive emotions;
• achieving life comfort;
• acquisition of material goods;
• doing one's own duty;
• showing love and care for loved ones.

Such incentives to action are considered stable, unchangeable over time. For example, a student’s desire to learn a lesson is determined by internal motives - interest in the subject, thirst for new knowledge, and the desire to get a high score.

This brings moral satisfaction from a job well done. External motives are associated with circumstances that indirectly or indirectly depend on the will of a person, the sphere of application of his efforts.

A typical example is choosing wardrobe items according to the season or the desire to take an umbrella with you in anticipation of rain. Public opinion, comfort, and the vagaries of nature do not depend on internal factors of the individual. They create motives called external ones.

Good performance of assigned work, professional duties, and the desire for personal growth pursue the goal of increasing one’s own value in the labor market. Here there is a clear combination of internal motives from those cited earlier in the article with external ones, determined by the current situation.

The latter play a crucial developmental role, forcing them to compete. What matters is social encouragement or condemnation, which is inextricably linked with the choice of external motive. They are more effective than internal ones, therefore they are used to control the behavior of an individual.

Positive and negative motives

Such factors are subject to and subject to emotional influence. They are aimed at satisfying the natural need for positive moral feelings. The desire to avoid negative emotions determines the choice of path or sequence of actions.

Negative feelings include:

• fear;
• anxiety;
• moral torment;
• physical pain;
• the desire to avoid punishment for an offense.

An individual always subconsciously tries to choose the course of action that will provide positive emotions and exclude negative ones. Such motives are called positive or negative.

Psychologists disagree about the effectiveness of such motivating factors. Fear and the instinct of self-preservation are considered incredibly powerful stimuli. Negative motives are aimed at overcoming obstacles standing in the way of a goal.

Stable and unstable

The first are based on natural needs and requirements. Therefore, stable motives do not need additional reinforcement. They remain relevant in the long term.

Unsustainable motives are subordinated to situational goals and the satisfaction of immediate needs. Factors inducing action based on worldview, personal interest, and taste preferences are particularly stable.

Achieving success

Based on promoted life values. Social norms encourage individuals to strive to achieve success in life. A special system of standards has been created with an understanding of prestige and respectability.

They are equivalent to the concept of success and are aimed at creating the required motivating factors. The system of modern value guidelines has elevated a certain scale of achievements with attributes of high social status to the top of the psychological hierarchy.

There are many obstacles on the path to success in life. To overcome them, powerful motivation is required, which consists of material wealth, personal comfort, and public recognition. To get closer to a distant and elusive goal, intermediate milestones are outlined. Achieving each of them is a separate motivating factor.

In psychology, motive is also a progressive, systematic, consistent movement towards a global life goal. This path often requires leaving your own comfort zone. It is the motive that makes a person decide to take such actions.

Under the influence of an incentive, an individual sacrifices little to solve a global problem. In psychology, a comfort zone is understood as a personal mental, physical and spiritual space that a person is willing to sacrifice in order to achieve a goal with expected compensation.

All people verbally declare their desire to achieve success, but not everyone is ready to make sacrifices for it. The corresponding motive is intended to compensate for the costs on the thorny path to high social status. Here a hidden motivating factor of a subconscious nature often comes into play.

Psychological characteristics of motives

Motives are those internal forces that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage him to perform certain activities.

Motives are conscious, meaningful and felt needs.

The motives are varied. But they are usually divided into lower (biological) and higher (social). Biological motives are the drives, desires, and desires of a person, usually reflecting his physiological needs.

Social motives are the interests, ideals, and beliefs of an individual, which play a much more significant role in her life.

Physiological basis of motivation. Needs, developing into motivation, activate the central nervous system and other potentials of the body.

Motivation, in turn, activates the work of the corresponding functional systems, primarily afferent synthesis and the acceptor of action results.

Motivation creates a special state of the functional system - pre-start integration, which ensures the body's readiness to perform the corresponding activity.

Under its influence, the tone of the sympathetic nervous system is excited (increased), as a result of which vegetative reactions intensify and the actual search activity of the human body increases.

In addition, subjective emotional experiences arise, which have a predominantly negative connotation until the corresponding need is satisfied

All of the above creates conditions for optimal achievement of what you want.

Due to their diversity, different needs often coexist simultaneously, prompting a person to take different actions. dominant motivational arousal plays a role in the implementation of the desired action According to the principle of dominance, formulated by A. A. Ukhtomsky, at any given moment in time, the motivation that is based on the most important need prevails.

The dominant motivational arousal, which induces certain goal-directed behavior, persists until the need that caused it is satisfied.

In addition, the excitation of motivational subcortical centers, having arisen, accumulates to a critical level, after which the cells begin to send certain discharges and maintain such activity until the need is satisfied.

This is where the neural mechanisms of motivation come into play.

Scheme. Psychological characteristics of motives

Needs are experienced by a person in two ways: on the one hand, as unique experiences of real needs that urgently require their satisfaction, on the other hand, as an awareness of needs in the form of certain ideas. Such awareness of needs was a condition for the formation of interests as qualitatively special motives of the individual.

Functions of motives

To explain the background of any behavior, reactions to changes in conditions or actions in psychology, extrinsic (external) or intrinsic (internal) reasons are used. They are closely related to the basic functions of motives. There are 3 of them - motivation, direction, regulation.

Psycho-emotional qualities are considered external factors that determine an individual’s behavior:

• satisfaction of natural needs;
• achieving your goals;
• realizing your own desires;
• following your interests or hobbies.

The incentives that guide behavior are based on the functions of motives. Motivation provokes the commission of certain actions, gives psycho-emotional impulses or emotional impulses relevance.

The guiding function helps to choose the right path to solve a problem. Regulatory forces one to adhere to the mores, norms and rules prevailing in a social environment or social group. It gives legitimacy to internal motives.

Functions are similarly influenced by external stimuli. When guided by extrinsic motives, they activate other characteristics of the individual. Therefore, motivational functions in psychology are considered in a dual context.

Some are classified as biological, considered innate, and provide survival. Such functions of stimulating factors are aimed at satisfying basic physiological needs - satisfying hunger, thirst, sleep.

They are inherent in any biological organism, since they are dictated by nature. Maternal instinct is considered one of the most powerful motivating factors. The biological functions of motives include thermoregulatory, excretory, and the desire to avoid pain or discomfort.

People are characterized by secondary stimulating factors acquired during life, dictated by the prevailing external conditions and social environment. Interpretations of the functions of the motifs are given in the table.

The motif has selective functions and individual properties that change over time. In psychology this is called adaptive ability. Inducing factors and their functions are not the same in terms of their impact on the individual.

Psychology of personality motives

Motives are those internal forces that are associated with the conscious, meaningful and felt needs of the individual and encourage him to perform certain activities. This concept often denotes such psychological phenomena as intention, desire, desire, design, hunting, thirst, fear and many others.

Motivation appears when a need or lack of something arises. It is the initial stage of mental and physical activity. In general, motivation is an inducement to activity by a certain motive, the process of choosing reasons for a certain direction of action. Motivation is accompanied by specific experiences, positive or negative emotions (joy, satisfaction, relief, fear, suffering). There is also a certain psychophysiological tension, i.e. the processes are accompanied by states of excitement, anxiety, a surge or loss of strength.

The motives are varied. But they are usually divided into lower (biological) and higher (social).

Biological motives are the drives, desires, and desires of a person, usually reflecting his physiological needs.

Social motives are the interests, ideals, and beliefs of an individual that play a much more significant role in her life.

Physiological basis of motivation . Needs, developing into motivation, activate the central nervous system and other potentials of the body. Motivation, in turn, activates the work of the corresponding functional systems, primarily afferent synthesis and the acceptor of action results. Motivation creates a special state of the functional system - pre-start integration, which ensures the body's readiness to perform the corresponding activity. Under its influence, the tone of the sympathetic nervous system is excited (increased), as a result of which vegetative reactions intensify and the actual search activity of the human body increases. In addition, subjective emotional experiences arise, which have a predominantly negative connotation until the corresponding need is satisfied. All of the above creates conditions for optimal achievement of what you want.

Due to their diversity, different needs often coexist simultaneously, prompting a person to take different actions. Therefore, dominant motivational arousal plays a role in the implementation of the desired action. According to the principle of dominance formulated by A.A. Ukhtomsky, at any given moment in time, the motivation that is based on the most important need prevails. The dominant motivational arousal, which induces certain goal-directed behavior, persists until the need that caused it is satisfied.

In addition, the excitation of motivational subcortical centers, having arisen, accumulates to a critical level, after which the cells begin to send certain discharges and maintain such activity until the need is satisfied. This is where the neural mechanisms of motivation come into play.

Levels and types of motivation

Without connection with the stimulus that ensures the development of the individual, the levels of motivation are transformed and the strength of influence changes. There are 2 main types of motivating factors: dictated by internal reasons or external circumstances.

The former do not allow you to give up when you fail, the latter are aimed at achieving public recognition. According to Freud, there are male and female types of motivation.

In a simplified version, the first is focused on saving existing reserves, the second is on finding additional resources and sources. Each psychological school offers its own interpretations of the types of motivation.

The following classification of levels of stimulating factors is popular:

• Perspective visualization. It involves creating a clear guideline, an image of the desired future.
• Stability of perspective. The individual seeks confidence that living conditions will remain unchanged in the foreseeable future. Both internal and external motivation are based on this.
• Activating perspective. When approaching a goal, an individual subconsciously intensifies the desire to reach it, and accordingly the level of motivation increases.
• Stagedness. Complex goals require step-by-step planning. The proximity of each subsequent intermediate point does not allow motivation to weaken.

S. Polukeev, based on an analysis of the works of L. Gumilev, proposed 9 levels of motivation. Each reflects the strength of the individual’s incentives, his psychological state, and the strength of his life’s aspirations.

Depending on the goals being achieved, tasks being solved or actions being performed, the level of motivation decreases or increases. The determining factors are considered to be the significance of the result, confidence in achieving the goal, and personal forecasts regarding the possibility of achieving what was planned.

Motive as a stable personality trait

This view of motive is especially characteristic of Western psychologists, who believe that stable personality traits determine human behavior and activity to the same extent as external stimuli. R. Meili classifies anxiety, aggressiveness, level of aspirations, and resistance to frustration as motivational personality traits. A similar point of view is shared by a number of domestic psychologists, in particular, K.K. Platonov, M.Sh. Magomed-Eminov, V.S. Merlin. However, taking stable personality traits as a motive does not solve the problem entirely, since in this case one can get an answer to the question: why this particular goal, this method of achievement was chosen, but it is impossible to get answers to the other questions formulated above.

Motive as an incentive

The most common and accepted point of view is the understanding of motive as an incentive. Since motivation determines not so much physiological as mental reactions, it is associated with awareness of the stimulus and giving it some significance. Therefore, most psychologists believe that a motive is not just any, but a conscious impulse that reflects a person’s readiness to act or act. Thus, the stimulator of a motive is an incentive, and the stimulator of an action is an internal conscious impulse. In this regard, V.I. Kovalev defines motive as follows: motives are conscious impulses of behavior and activity that arise with the highest form of reflection of needs, i.e., their awareness. From this definition it follows that a motive is a conscious need. Drive is seen as the desire to satisfy a need.

The structure of the motivational-need sphere of a person.

The motivational-need sphere of a person is based on a large number of very different human needs. Motives arise from needs. The needs, motives and actions associated with them are united by various multilateral connections, which determine the structure of the motivational-need sphere. The word “motivation” is used in modern psychology in a double sense: as denoting a system of factors that determine behavior (this includes, in particular, needs, motives, goals, intentions, aspirations and much more), and as a characteristic of the process that stimulates and supports behavioral activity at a certain level. Any form of behavior can be explained by both internal and external reasons. In the first case, the starting and final points of explanation are the psychological properties of the subject of behavior, and in the second - the external conditions and circumstances of his activity. In the first case, they talk about motives, needs, goals, intentions, desires, interests, etc., and in the second, they talk about incentives emanating from the current situation.

1.1. Motive

Motive, in contrast to motivation, is something that belongs to the subject of behavior himself, is his stable personal property, which internally encourages him to perform certain actions. A motive is a form of manifestation of a need (objectified need), an incentive for a certain activity, the object for the sake of which this need is realized. The same activity can be caused by different motives. Motive is an incentive to activity.

1.2. Need

Need is the state of need of a person or animal in certain conditions that they lack for normal existence and development. Need as a state of personality is always associated with a person’s feeling of dissatisfaction associated with a shortage of what is required (hence the name “need”) by the body (person). A person has the most diverse needs, who, in addition to physical and organic needs, also have material, spiritual, social (the latter are specific needs associated with communication and interaction of people with each other). As individuals, people differ from each other in the variety of needs they have and the particular combination of these needs. The main characteristics of human needs are strength, frequency of occurrence and method of satisfaction. An additional, but very significant characteristic, especially when it comes to personality, is the substantive content of the need, i.e. the totality of those objects of material and spiritual culture with the help of which a given need can be satisfied.

1.3. Target

The concept second only to need in its motivational significance is goal. The goal is the directly conscious result towards which the action associated with the activity that satisfies the actualized need is currently directed. Psychologically, a goal is that motivational content of consciousness that is perceived by a person as the immediate and immediate expected result of his activity. The goal is the main object of attention and occupies the volume of short-term and operative memory; the thought process unfolding at a given moment in time and most of all kinds of emotional experiences are associated with it. Unlike the goal associated with short-term memory, needs are likely to be stored in long-term memory.

1.4. Interest

Interest is a special motivational state of a cognitive nature, which, as a rule, is not directly related to any one need that is relevant at a given time. Interest in oneself can be aroused by any unexpected event that involuntarily attracted attention, any new object that appears in the field of vision, any particular, randomly occurring auditory or other stimulus.

Interest corresponds to a special type of activity, which is called indicative-research. The higher an organism is on the evolutionary ladder, the more time it takes this type of activity and the more perfect its methods and means. The highest level of development of such activity, available only to humans, is scientific and artistic and creative research.

1.5. Desire and intention

Desires and intentions are momentarily arising and quite often replacing each other motivational subjective states that meet the changing conditions for performing an action.

Interests, tasks, desires and intentions, although they are part of the system of motivational factors, participate in the motivation of behavior, however, they play not so much an incentive role as an instrumental one. They are more responsible for the style rather than the direction of behavior.

The motivation for human behavior can be:

• conscious;

• unconscious.

Structure of A. Maslow.

Basic human motives, examples

The main factors stimulating and determining the behavior of an individual include those aimed at biological survival. They are laid down by nature and cannot be changed by willpower.

Some of these motives are cyclical in nature - food intake, sleep and wakefulness phases. Obvious examples are obtaining food and extracting additional resources. The main motives stimulate the work activity of an individual and economic processes in social formations.

The accumulation of material assets, the production of basic household items and food products are aimed at satisfying natural human needs. This includes the production of heating products. The motivation for such activity is to increase life expectancy.

In psychology, a motive is an individual’s desire to satisfy his own basic needs. Such considerations force states to develop science, technology, and medicine. At the heart of complex economic and social processes lies a simple desire to satisfy the basic needs of all members of the social formation.

Many basic motives are not given importance in everyday life, but they act as the driving force of any activity. Such stimulating factors include the subconscious desire to avoid danger, dictated by the instinct of self-preservation.

The search for shelter, the desire to protect oneself, to create the most favorable conditions for life are considered the main and fundamental motives. The main behavioral stimuli are individual psychological characteristics that have a strong influence on a person’s actions in different situations.

They are socially conditioned or have a personal innate nature. Motivation can be functional and serve the purposes of cultural development of the individual. Such incentives force people to buy expensive tickets to a concert, theater, or contemporary art exhibition.

Motivation in psychology: history and current state of the problem

 In this article, the author analyzes the state of the problem of motivation in psychological science.

Key words: motivation, motive, need, activity.

The problem of studying motivation is one of the most important in modern psychology; it is complex and multifaceted, which leads to a multiplicity of understanding of its essence, nature and structure. There is a large amount of literature and a number of approaches have been developed in the study of motivation in psychology. Despite the fact that there is still no single and generally accepted definition of the concept of motivation and various authors characterize motivation taking into account the specifics of the scientific direction in which they work, it remains undoubted that motivation is the main driving force in human behavior and activity.

Motivation is understood as a set of motivating factors that determine the activity of an individual, which include motives, needs, incentives that determine a person’s activity [1].

The main directions of the psychology of motivation took shape in the first half of the twentieth century in the works of such famous authors as S. Freud, K. Levin, I. P. Pavlov, W. McDougall, W. James, E. Thorndike, etc. However, already great thinkers of the Ancient world, such as Aristotle, Heraclitus, Democritus, Plato, Socrates, mentioned “need,” which was the determinant of the activity of any living creature. Thus, they laid the foundation for the scientific study of the causes of human activity and their determination [2].

The term “motivation” was first used by A. Schopenhauer in the article “Four Principles of Sufficient Reason” (1900–1910), after which this term became firmly established in the terminology of psychologists to explain the causes of human activity and behavior [2].

An important stage in the study of motivation began in the 19th century. thanks to the emergence of S. Freud's teachings about the unconscious and human drives. From the point of view of the author of the theory of psychoanalysis, the decisive role in behavior is played by the unconscious core of mental life, which is formed by powerful sexual or aggressive drives that require satisfaction. Unlike the functionalist W. James, who believed that motivation is associated mainly with conscious decision-making, S. Freud and his followers believed that the decisive role belongs to the unconscious [8].

In the 20s XX century in Western psychology, the first theories of motivation arose from authors such as K. Levin, G. Allport and others, in which they distinguish, in addition to biological ones, secondary, or psychogenic, needs that appear in the process of training and upbringing (G. Murray). These needs include the need to achieve success, independence, respect, avoiding failure, etc.

In the 20th century, as before, the concept of “motivation” is inextricably linked with the concept of “need”. In 1954, A. Maslow put forward an extensive classification of needs. According to his theory, a person cannot experience high-level needs without satisfying basic needs. A. Maslow places physiological needs at the very bottom of his pyramid, and the need for self-actualization at the very top [5].

However, theories of motivation by needs were opposed to the views of behaviorists. For example, E. Thorndike believes that behavior develops according to the “stimulus-response” scheme, speaking of the stimulus as an active source of the body’s reaction. In general, for behaviorists there was no problem of motivation, since, in their opinion, the dynamic condition of behavior is the reactivity of the organism, that is, its ability to respond in a certain way to stimuli.

In the second half of the 20th century. new concepts of motivation arise, a characteristic feature of which was the recognition of the leading role of consciousness in the determination of human behavior. Thanks to cognitive theories of motivation, new motivational concepts have emerged, such as social needs, life goals, values, expectation of success, fear of failure.

Significant contributions to the development of the theory of motivation were made by domestic psychologists such as P.K. Anokhin, N.A. Bernshtein, A.N. Leontiev, B.F. Lomov, R.S. Nemov, E.P. Ilyin and others. , who established that it is motivation that explains the purposefulness of action, as well as the organization and sustainability of holistic activity, which is aimed at achieving a specific goal.

In the theory of motivation developed in Russian psychology, it is generally accepted that when speaking about the motives of activity, one should keep in mind precisely the materialized need. A. N. Leontiev, the author of the psychological concept of activity, noted that the object of activity, being a motive, can be both real and ideal, but, most importantly, there is always a need behind it [3].

In addition, A. N. Leontiev, having devoted a long time to the development of problems of motivation in psychology, introduces the concept of personal meaning of activity and comes to the conclusion that “the formation of a person’s personality finds its psychological expression in the development of its motivational sphere” [4].

S. L. Rubinstein, in his book “Fundamentals of General Psychology,” examined motives in connection with specific types of activity. At the same time, the motives were associated with socio-historical development, the social nature of human activity, and it was emphasized that human activity is conscious, in contrast to the instinctive behavior of animals. Also in his books, S. L. Rubinstein developed a need-based approach to the consideration of motives [7].

The psychological mechanisms of human motivation were studied by H. Heckhausen. According to the author, motivation is the interaction of three main factors: personal, situational and motive, correlated with each other through the mechanism of cognitive inferences [9].

R. S. Nemov defines motivation as “a set of reasons of a psychological nature that explain human behavior, its beginning, direction and activity” [6].

There are various theories of motivation. Traditionally, they are divided into substantive and procedural. Content theories, which include A. Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs, D. McClelland's theory of acquired needs, F. Herzberg's two-factor theory, consider the motivational sphere from the point of view of the needs and wants that stand behind them. Process theories, among which are V. Vroom's theory of expectations, Porter-Lawler's model-theory of motivation, S. Adams' theory of equality (fairness), consider motivation from the point of view of the reasons that motivate activity; human behavior is determined not only by his needs, but also by his perceptions and expectations.

Thus, a review of the works of domestic and foreign psychologists shows that the problem of studying motivation in psychology remains relevant. It cannot be said that at the moment scientists have come to a consensus on this issue, but the accumulated materials allow for a more in-depth study of the problems of motivation.

Literature:

1. Volkova E. L. Modern approaches to personnel motivation / E. L. Volkova // Scientific notes of the St. Petersburg State Institute of Psychology and Social Work. - 2007. - No. 2 (Vol. 8). — P. 29–33.
2. Ilyin, E. P. Motivation and motives - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011. - 512 p.
3. Leontyev, A. N. Needs, motives and emotions. / A. N. Leontiev. - M.: MSU, 1971. - 40 p.
4. Leontiev A. N. Problems of mental development / A. N. Leontiev. - M.: MSU, 1981. –584 p.
5. Maslow, A. Motivation and personality / A. Maslow. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011. - 352 p.
6. Nemov, R. S. Psychology: a textbook for bachelors / R. S. Nemov. - M.: Yurayt Publishing House. - 2015. - 639 p.
7. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - 713 p.
8. Freud, Z. Basic psychological theories in psychoanalysis / Z. Freud. - M.: AST, 2006. - 400 p.
9. Heckhausen, H. Motivation and activity. T.1. / H. Heckhausen. - M.: Pedagogy, 1986. - 632 p.

What is the subordination of motives?

This is a key concept in the formation and development of personality. The first signs of subordination of motives appear at an early age. Various stimulating factors lose equal importance and form a system of personal values ​​and life guidelines.

This structure is called an individual motivational scheme. Dominant and secondary motivations constitute a hierarchy in which there is a difference in levels and strength of influence.

Subordinate motives of adolescence include:

• self-affirmation;
• desire to achieve sports success;
• the emergence of moral qualities;
• behavioral assessment.

To prevent ethical deformation of the individual, subordinate motives are built into a hierarchical system by educational means. The most difficult moment during the period of an individual’s psychological formation is the choice between personal and social values.

The subordination of motives is formed in the struggle of these factors to create a reasonable compromise. It starts in preschool age. The result of this step-by-step process is considered to be motivational readiness, which is closely related to the concepts of cognitive interest and initiative.

The problem of the struggle of motives

At the same time and in parallel, the individual is under the influence of numerous multidirectional stimulating factors. This is the most important concept of volitional activity. The struggle of motives is aimed at determining the dominant and dominant stimulus.

Its logical outcome is the formation of a mature personality, understanding of life priorities, and the ability to make decisions independently. Some motives have ambivalent meaning. Example: is it worth accepting the help of an unpleasant or a priori unfriendly person?

Such dilemmas that haunt an individual throughout his life constitute the essence of the struggle of motives. A typical example is a choice between positive but incompatible goals. Making a decision often requires willpower. It is not recommended to make difficult life choices under the influence of emotions.

Motive in psychology is also a constant struggle of multidirectional stimuli and motivations. A clear definition of value guidelines helps you make error-free choices. Psychologists recommend drawing up a personal motivational scheme to ease internal struggles.

How to correctly determine motive and motivation?

Personal psychophysiological stimuli regulate the behavior of an individual and serve as the basis of a person’s mental sphere. Motivation is the driving force that organizes motivating factors and combines them into a coherent system.

A well-built hierarchy makes it easier to achieve goals and increases efficiency. To correctly determine your own motives, dividing them into dominant and secondary ones, deep introspection is required. In psychology, this is considered a fundamental factor in the formation of a harmonious personality.