Ancient psychology
Psychology originated in the late 7th and early 6th centuries. BC. in Ancient Greece as part of natural philosophy (a science that studied the laws of all things). At this time, it was believed that not only man, but the whole world was animated (panpsychism). The soul was considered material, and its main function was considered energetic - setting an inert (passive) body in motion.
An important role in the development of psychology was played by the idea of causality (determinism), formulated by Heraclitus. The concept of general law (Logos) contributed to overcoming sacredness and the development of science in general, but it gave rise to the most important question about whether a person has free will and behavior. Opinions on this matter were divided - Democritus defended predestination, and Socrates and Plato noted that in this case a person is deprived of criteria for the moral assessment of his behavior. The philosophical school of the Stoics divided freedom into internal and external, thereby leaving behind the possibility of moral improvement for a person.
Later, ancient scientists came to the conclusion that the soul serves as the source of reason and morality, and the determining factor influencing the human psyche is culture. Thus, a qualitative difference was established between the psyche of humans and animals, which led to the transition from the materialistic concept of the soul to the idealistic one, embedded in the works of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. For example, Plato put forward the idea of the immateriality and eternity of the soul.
The psychology of cognition originated in antiquity. Aristotle singled out the cognitive processes of imagination and speech, Plato - memory. The foundation was laid for such directions as sensationalism (knowledge is based on sensations) in the works of Democritus and Epicurus, as well as rationalism (sensations give knowledge about individual things, universal knowledge is given by reason) - in Plato, Plotinus and the Stoic school. On the issue of regulating human behavior, ancient thinkers also touched upon the problem of emotions. Democritus, Epicurus and Lucretius Carus believed that a person strives for what brings him pleasure. Plato defended regulation by reason.
During the Hellenistic period, the most important issues for psychology were issues of ethics and morality, the relationship between the individual and society. The schools of Epicureans, Stoics, Cynics, and Platonists took part in the discussion. In philosophy and literature (for example, Euripides' Medea), attention was focused on the value of the individual and his right to his own ethical standards. The problem of freedom was considered by the Cynics, who came to the conclusion that in order to achieve it, a person must become self-sufficient and free from shame.
Facts about psychology
- Psychology is the study of behavior and the mind.
- There are different types of psychology such as cognitive, social and developmental psychology.
- A person with a condition that affects their mental health can greatly benefit from treatment with a psychologist.
- A psychologist may offer treatment that focuses on behavioral adaptations.
- A psychotherapist is a doctor who is likely to focus on the medical treatment of mental health problems.
Psychology in the Middle Ages
Medieval science, including psychology, was inextricably linked with religion. In the Christian world in the 3rd–6th centuries. ancient concepts were banned as pagan. Philosophical schools (Lyceum, Garden of Epicurus) were closed or driven out of Europe. Their return took place already in the 9th–10th centuries, including through the Islamic world. The Church condemned both doubt in its dogmas and attempts to prove them. In the VI–XII centuries. churches and monasteries were the focus of culture; church scholars who had access to ancient literature worked there. In the XII–XIII centuries. The first universities appeared in Europe, scholasticism developed, which served as a theoretical basis for church dogmas.
Only in the XII–XIII centuries. medieval psychology received a subject of study - the “physical soul”, which differs from the “spiritual soul” studied by theology (the so-called deism). By the XIV–XVI centuries. ancient works became accessible for study, their authors became indisputable authorities. Medieval psychology studied the processes of thinking, in particular, the question of universals (general concepts). Realists believed that general concepts existed in the mind of God before the creation of things, nominalists denied the existence of general concepts in reality, and conceptualists argued for the existence of universals in the mind of man. The connection between mental and somatic illnesses was studied by the medieval Arab thinker Ibn Sina, who laid the foundations of psychophysiology and the study of stress.
Psychology in Modern Times
In modern times, the development of psychology was influenced by the emergence of new approaches to the construction of science - the desire for rationality, evidence of theoretical positions. Psychology becomes a science of consciousness and does not study issues of external activity and behavior. The development of exact sciences, in particular physics, led to the emergence of such an approach as mechanistic determinism (the human body is a kind of machine that acts in accordance with the laws of physics). There was a struggle between rationalistic (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G.V. Leibniz) and sensualistic (D. Locke, T. Hobbes) approaches to knowledge.
R. Descartes substantiated the theory of reflex (he used the term “association”), explaining the behavior of animals and involuntary human movements. He also highlighted passive emotions (passions) associated with thinking and which are one of the components of human concepts. This concept served as the basis for the development of the cognitive theory of emotions. Descartes identified the psyche with consciousness and allowed self-knowledge of the psyche (introspection). He also introduced the concept of rational intuition ("light of reason"), a transpersonal process necessary for the knowledge of innate ideas (for example, the idea of God).
Leibniz introduced the principle of activity, refuting the view of cognition as a process independent of human emotions and motives. His concept of the soul-monad laid the foundation for the study of the area of the unconscious (Leibniz called the unconscious perception, and the conscious - apperception). B. Spinoza, studying the problems of free will and the nature of human feelings, formulated the concept of affects - desire (drive), pleasure (joy) and displeasure (sadness). T. Hobbes extended the principle of mechanistic determinism to human mental life. In 1590 N. Goklenius proposed the term “psychology”.
Directions of psychology
There are different types of psychology that serve different purposes. There is no fixed way to classify them, but here are some common types.
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology integrates science, theory, and practice to understand, predict, and treat problems of adjustment, disability, and distress. This promotes adaptation and personal development. Clinical psychology can help us understand, prevent and alleviate psychologically-related disorder or dysfunction, and promote a person's well-being and personal development.
A clinical psychologist concentrates on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social and behavioral aspects of human functioning throughout an individual's life span, across cultures and at different socio-economic levels.
Psychological assessment and psychotherapy are central to the practice of clinical psychology, but clinical psychologists are often also involved in research, teaching, litigation, and other areas of practice.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology studies internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language. It looks at how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn. It is closely related to neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics.
Cognitive psychologists look at how people receive, process, and store information. Practical applications include how to improve memory, improve decision-making accuracy, or how to create educational programs to accelerate learning.
Developmental psychology
It is the scientific study of the systematic psychological changes that a person experiences throughout life, often referred to as human development. It is aimed not only at infants and young children, but also at teenagers, adults and the elderly.
Factors include motor skills, problem solving, moral understanding, language acquisition, emotion, self-esteem, and personality development.
It also looks at the innate mental structures that inhibit experiential learning, or how a person interacts with the environment and how this affects development. Developmental psychology overlaps with fields such as linguistics.
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology looks at how human behavior, such as language, is affected by psychological changes during evolution.
The evolutionary psychologist believes that many human psychological traits are adaptive in the sense that they have allowed us to survive for millennia.
Forensic psychology
Forensic psychology involves the application of psychology to criminal investigation and the law. It involves assessing psychological factors that may influence a case or behavior and presenting the results in court.
A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a science in the criminal justice system and civil courts.
Health Psychology
Health psychology is also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology. She studies how behavioral, biological, and social context influence disease and health.
A doctor will often look at the biological causes of a disease first, but a psychologist will focus on the whole person and what affects their health. This may include socioeconomic status, educational level, and behaviors that may influence the disease, such as noncompliance with prescriptions and medications. Clinical psychologists typically work alongside other health care professionals in clinical settings.
Neuropsychology
Neuropsychology looks at the structure and function of the brain in relation to behavior and psychological processes. Neuropsychology may be applicable when the condition involves lesions in the brain.
A neuropsychological assessment is used to determine a person's likelihood of developing behavior problems after a suspected or diagnosed brain injury such as a stroke. The results may allow the doctor to provide treatment that can help the person achieve possible improvements to the cognitive damage that has already occurred.
Labor psychology
In a corporate setting, a psychologist can help increase productivity and improve relationships between employees. Professional psychologists are involved in assessing and making recommendations regarding people's performance at work and in the learning process. They help companies find more efficient ways to operate and understand how people and groups behave at work. This information can help improve efficiency, effectiveness, job satisfaction and motivate employees.
Social Psychology
Social psychology uses scientific methods to understand how social phenomena influence human behavior. It attempts to explain how feelings, behavior and thoughts are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other people.
The social psychologist examines group behavior, social perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are seen as key to understanding social behavior.
Other areas of focus include military, consumer, educational, cross-cultural, and environmental psychology. The number of destinations continues to grow constantly.
Psychology in the 18th century
During this period, the development of science was stimulated by the ideas of progress and development. In the middle of the 18th century. The first psychological school—associationism—emerges. Associative psychology was the only purely psychological direction until the beginning of the twentieth century. Associative psychology was developed by C. Bonnet, who suggested that associations of sensations and ideas are connections of nerve fibers. Associationism was developed in the works of D. Berkeley and D. Hume. The founder of this direction is considered to be D. Hartley, who created a new theory of reflex associated with vibrations. The scientist identified a large circle of vibrations (from the sensory organs to the brain and muscles) and a small one (in the white matter of the brain, which provides memory, learning and cognition).
H. Wolf developed the terminology of German psychology and published the books “Empirical Psychology” (1732) and “Rational Psychology” (1734). Concepts appear that connect the psyche with the cultural environment, the geographical environment (D. Vico, C. Montesquieu, I. Herder), the foundations of social, differential and ethnopsychology are laid. J. La Mettrie introduced the concept of “needs” into scientific circulation and began to study attention. The sensationalistic approach was developed by E. Condillac in his “Treatise on Sensations” (1754), arguing that mental activity represents transformed sensations.
C. Helvetius explained the differences between people by different social status and upbringing, and believed that abilities are acquired through the learning process. J.-J. Rousseau, on the contrary, adhered to the concept of “natural man,” according to which society instills negative qualities in a naturally good and honest person. Rousseau also created a detailed periodization of mental development. P. Zh. Kabanis put forward a hypothesis about three levels of mental regulation of behavior - conscious, semi-conscious and reflexive.
H. Wolf developed the theory of “psychology of abilities”, trying to find a reasonable basis for mental processes. His idea of the spontaneous activity of the soul was developed by I. Kant, I. Herbart, W. Wundt, eventually coming to the formation of ideas about the apperceptive activity of the soul, which is the basis of higher mental functions.
Psychology in the 19th – early 20th centuries
The founder of the direction of positivism in science, O. Comte, did not find a place for psychology in his classification of sciences, as it does not have a positive (that is, scientific) paradigm. Thus, psychology was faced with a choice: either losing the status of an independent discipline, merging with biology and sociology, or transforming in the spirit of positivism. The primary requirement was the development of a methodology, since introspection could not be considered truly scientific. The method of logic (J. Mill), the trial and error method (A. Bain), the method of genetic observation (I. Sechenov), and the experimental method (W. Wundt) appear.
The emergence of Darwin's theory of evolution entailed the final rejection of mechanistic determinism and the acceptance of the idea that the goal of mental development is adaptation to the environment. It became possible to develop a number of branches of psychology - differential, genetic, zoopsychology.
The discoveries of G. Helmholtz laid the foundation for the development of psychophysiology. The dead-end branch of physiology turned out to be phrenology - the theory (formulated by F. Gall) that the development of individual areas of the cerebral cortex affects the shape of the skull, causing the appearance of “bumps”. However, testing and refutation of this theory stimulated the development of experimental psychology. Psychophysics (founder – G. Fechner), which serves to measure sensations (the concept of “sensation threshold” appears), and psychometry (founder – F. Donders), which measures the speed of mental processes, also developed. In 1879, in Leipzig, W. Wundt opened the first laboratory of experimental psychology. Experimental study of memory at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. studied by G. Ebbinghaus.
At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. Psychology already included a number of schools, whose representatives interpreted its subject, tasks, and methods differently. These were structuralism (E. Titchener), functionalism (F. Brentano, C. Stumpf), Würzburg (O. Külpe, N. Ach) and French (T. Ribot, E. Durkheim) schools, descriptive psychology (V. Dilthey, E. Strangler). In particular, the work of functionalists proved that the psyche is a dynamic stream of consciousness. Scientists from the Würzburg School were the first to begin the experimental study of thinking. V. Dilthey developed an approach that was later called “psychologism.” He proposed not to explain the psyche, but to understand and comprehend it.
Psychology in the 20th – early 21st centuries
In 1910 – 1930 psychological science was experiencing a crisis generated by the discrepancy between the theoretical and methodological basis and the accumulated empirical data. As a result, a number of new directions in psychology emerged:
- behaviorism (founder - J. Watson, translated from English behavior - behavior), the study of behavior experimentally;
- Gestalt psychology (founders: M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Kafka, translated from German Gestalt - holistic image), the study of the psyche in holistic manifestations;
- psychoanalysis (founder – S. Freud), the main focus was on the unconscious;
- analytical psychology (C. Jung), individual psychology (A. Adler) – development of the ideas of psychoanalysis by Freud’s students;
- sociologically oriented psychology (E. Durkheim, M. Galbwachs, C. Blondel) - argued that the human in a person is the result of life in society.
In the second half of the twentieth century. A number of other psychological schools are emerging:
- humanistic psychology (K. Rogers, A. Maslow, G. Opport) - the study of a healthy, creative personality striving for self-actualization;
- cognitive psychology (J. Bruner, W. Neisser, G. Kelly) – considers the psyche as a system that searches and processes information;
- logotherapy (V. Frankl) - argues that the driving force of human behavior is the desire to find and realize the meaning of life.
On the basis of these areas, types of psychotherapy arose, for example, psychodrama, psychodynamic and gestalt therapy, psychosynthesis.
In Russian psychology since the early 1920s. the applied aspect of research was highlighted, aimed at increasing efficiency, reducing accidents and injuries. Such branches of psychology as psychotechnics, reflexology (V. Bekhterev), and reactology (K. Kornilov) emerged. Behavior was studied by M. Basov, P. Blonsky, the theory of attitude was developed by D. Uznadze, the cultural-historical concept - L. Vygotsky, the psychological theory of activity - S. Rubinstein and A. Leontiev, differential psychophysiology - B. Teplov, pathopsychology - B. Zeigarnik , neuropsychology - A. Luria.
J. Miller called the current state of psychological science an “intellectual zoo,” implying a variety of areas of psychology that are loosely related to each other. There is no consensus among scientists themselves about the possibility of the existence of some kind of unifying theory, since the accumulated amount of knowledge probably makes it not only impossible, but also unnecessary.
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Definition and history of the development of psychology as a science.
Topic 1. Psychology as a science and field of practical activity
Psychology as a science has a long period of development and a relatively short history. It arose many centuries ago, first as an integral part of philosophy. The word “psychology” is formed from the Greek words “psyche” (soul) and “logos” (teaching, science). But the term “psychology” itself appeared for the first time only in the 16th century, and referred to the science that studied the so-called mental or mental phenomena. Thus, psychology is the science of mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the individual. She studies the patterns of development and functions of human mental activity.
Back in ancient Greece (6th century BC), the first attempts to explain mental phenomena arose. The first Greek philosophers believed that in every person there is something (anima (Latin) - “spirit”, “soul”) that allows him to think, feel, desire, and make decisions. According to the ideas of Plato (427-347 BC), the spirit, or soul, is an independent substance, it exists on a par with the body and independently of it and controls all living and inanimate objects. Democritus (460–370 BC) believed that the soul is a material substance, it consists of atoms of fire. Democritus' materialism was of a naive mechanistic nature.
A much more complex idea of the soul was developed by Aristotle (384–322 BC). His treatise “On the Soul” is the first psychological work, which for many centuries remained the main guide to psychology. Aristotle himself is rightfully considered the founder of psychology. Aristotle rejected the view of the soul as a substance. He put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not as some kind of phenomenon external to it. According to Aristotle's theory, the soul or “psyche” is the engine that allows a living being to realize itself.
The dominant religion in the Middle Ages prohibited the study of man. Under the influence of the atmosphere characteristic of the Middle Ages (strengthening church influence on all aspects of social life, including science), the idea was established that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology.
R. Descartes (1596-1650) was one of the first to try to explain the behavior of animals and humans on the basis of a mechanical model. It was he who introduced the concept of reflex. R. Descartes contrasted the soul and the body: the body can only move, the soul can only think. However, the soul is capable of producing movements in the body. His approach was called dualism. Only at the beginning of the twentieth century the concept of soul was replaced first by the concept of “mind”, and then by the concept of “consciousness”.
An attempt to reunite the body and soul of man, separated by the teachings of Descartes, was made by the Dutch philosopher B. Spinoza (1632-1677). There is no special spiritual principle; it is always one of the manifestations of extended substance (matter). Soul and body are determined by the same material causes.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century. New approaches to the psyche began to take shape, and prerequisites arose for the formation of psychology as a science. These prerequisites include the development of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system. The attention of scientists is drawn to the study of the brain and its role in mental activity.
The change in the position of psychiatry and attitudes towards the mentally ill was also important. The ideas that mental disorder is a disease and needs to be treated served as the beginning of comparative studies of the normal and pathological psyches. Thus, the knowledge accumulated in biology, physiology, and medicine formed the basis for the creation of scientific psychology.
Psychology became an independent science in the 60s of the 19th century. It was associated with the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as with the introduction of experimental methods (until that time, the dominant method in psychology was introspection - introspection). In 1879, German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) opened the world's first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig. Then a systematic study of sensations, perceptions, reaction speed, and feelings began. The Wundt School trained the first generation of professional psychologists. Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) organized a similar laboratory in Russia.
The end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th centuries. characterized by the rapid growth of experimental and various branches of applied psychology. Experimental methods for studying memory are being developed (G. Ebbinghaus, 1850-1909). The first intelligence tests were created by the French psychologist A. Binet (1905).
The main stages of the development of psychology
Stage I – psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul.
Stage II – psychology as a science of consciousness. It appears in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study is human observation of himself.
Stage III – psychology as a science of behavior. Appears in the 20th century. Observation and study of what can be directly seen, namely: human behavior, actions, reactions. The main method is experiment.
Stage IV – psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, processes and mechanisms of the psyche. It has been developing since the second half of the 20th century.
Development of psychology in Russia. I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) is considered the founder of Russian scientific psychology. His works made an invaluable contribution to the development of the materialistic foundations of psychology. In 1863, his work “Reflexes of the Brain” was published, in which he considers the reflex as the main mechanism of mental phenomena. “All mental phenomena are essentially reflexes.”
The formation of Russian psychology is associated with the names of three Russian physiologists: I.M. Sechenov, V.M. Bekhterev, I.P. Pavlov, who laid the physiological foundations for the study of the psyche.
The experimental direction in psychology using objective research methods was developed by V. M. Bekhterev. The efforts of I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936) were aimed at studying conditioned reflex connections in the activity of the body. His work significantly influenced the understanding of the physiological basis of mental activity.
An important place in the history of Russian psychology belongs to G. I. Chelpanov (1862-1936). His main merit is the creation of a psychological institute in Russia (1912).
Famous scientists who made a huge contribution to the development of the modern Russian school of psychology were L.S. Vygotsky (cultural-historical concept of development), A.R. Luria (the doctrine of higher mental functions), A.N. Leontiev (psychology of activity), D.N. Uznadze (psychology of attitude).
In 1936, the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On pedological perversions in the system of Narkompros” imposed a ban on the further development of domestic psychology. Psychology and psychodiagnostics disappeared from universities and laboratories for a long time (until the end of the 50s).
Since the late 60s In the 20th century, psychology and psychotherapy began to revive in our country. The works of domestic scientists - B.G. Ananyev, A.A. Leontyev, V.M. Myasishchev, B.V. Zeigarnik, S.Ya. Rubinshtein and many others have become widely known both in our country and abroad. Currently, applied aspects of psychological knowledge, which are widely used in various fields of human activity, are of great importance.
